Instruction in Functional Assessment Chapter 1 Challenging Behaviors of Individuals with Developmental Disabilities

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Understanding Developmental and Intellectual Disabilities Children and adults with developmental or require the of professionals and parents to support their full development across adaptive areas . There are often many areas of need seen in a changing context across the individuals lifespan . A developmental disability ( Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Act of 2000 ) is a chronic mental physical tion that occurs between and 22 and is likely to occur ( Brown , 2007 ) For a diagnosis of mental disabilities , the individual shows functional limitations in three or more categories of , receptive and expressive language , academic learning , mobility , independent living , and economic . The ability of individuals with mental disabilities to interact with others in an appropriate manner , to take care of ones self and ones needs , and to maintain focus and active learning are critical skills . Failure to perform in a general education classroom is often linked to poor social skills (

Instruction in Assessment 2005 ) related services , care , and treatment required to provide the individually tailored support needed may span professional areas such as medical , pathology , special education , psychology , occupational therapy , physical therapy , counseling , and social work among others ( The current diagnostic criterion for developmental disabilities is based more on tion ( limitations and capabilities ) than category . As seen in Table , the main developmental disabilities include intellectual disability , autism spectrum disorder ( cerebral palsy , and seizure disorder ( Horner , Snell , 2007 ) Some individuals may have social , emotional , and behavioral issues within the of the disability ( Vaughn , 2009 ) A functional diagnostic system provides information for treatment possibilities and labels that may produce negative connotations and reactions by others ( Smith , 2005 , Connolly , Williams , 2013 ) 7221212 I General and link Intellectual Disability Developmental Disability Description Resources Characterized by limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior , which covers many everyday social and practical skills ( 2010 , 2013 ) A developmental disorder involving a wide range Autism Spectrum Disorder of impairment of social communication and interaction with repetitive behavioral aspects or restricted range of interest ( 2013 ) Cerebral Palsy , permanent brain damage that affects muscle movement , balance , posture . Seizure Disorder A sudden disruption of the brains electrical activity accompanied by altered consciousness or behavior . epi According to a survey of over parents , approximately 14 of American children have a disability ( Boyle et , 2011 ) In this , developmental disability was very broadly and included learning disability , stuttering , and tion Hyperactivity Disorder ( in addition to the categories listed in Table . The most common developmental disabilities include learning disability and with the prevalence of autism and increasing from to ( Boyle et , 2011 ) A recent United States nationally representative telephone survey of over households with children found that the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder ( was among children ages years in , an increase from found in 2007 ( et , 2013 )

Instruction in Assessment Defining Measuring Challenging Behaviors In addition to in academic performance and adaptive behaviors , individuals with developmental disabilities often engage in CHALLENGING BEHAViORS ( Lowe et , 2007 , Van der , 2010 ) Emerson ( 2001 ) challenging behavior as , culturally abnormal behavior ( of such intensity , frequency or duration that the physical safety of the person or others is likely to be placed in serious jeopardy , or behavior which is likely to seriously limit use of , or result in the person being denied access to , ordinary community facilities ( General categories of challenging behaviors include aggression , stereotypy , injurious , or disruptive behaviors . These categories require additional description to allow reliable assessment and treatment procedures to be performed . More , injurious behavior ( SIB ) may consist of the individual forcibly ( loud smack sound ) hitting one own body with open or closed hand , or banging head against self or objects . A more and objective description of the behavior is necessary because one person tion of a general category of behavior , such as aggression , may differ from another , which is a problem in reliability . For instance , in one study in which 120 teachers were asked to disrespectful behavior , over 17 different behaviors were given ( talking back , not following teacher directions , interrupting adults ) Landers , Alter , 2011 ) A behavior category would be inaccurately measured if it means one thing to one person and quite another to someone else . A BEHAViORAL must be objective , clear , and complete such that two observers naive to that person could read the and independently and reliably identify instances of the same behavior ( Hawkins ( 1977 ) This approach to mining the accuracy of measurement and adequacy of is called RELiABiLiTY . Accurate measurement of the behavior is necessary for assessment purposes , to implement treatment procedures accurately , and to evaluate treatment effectiveness ( Martin ( Pear , 2011 ) For example , one behavioral of involves biting self by upper and lower teeth making contact with skin resulting in pink marks or indentations on skin ( see , 2012 for additional of ) Likewise , is inadequate as a description of challenging behavior since it refers to a general category of behavior that would be open to interpretation . More and objectively , might be as screaming above a normal conversational level and forcefully banging one or both on the table . Aggression might be as making contact with an open hand , or foot to any body part of another person . See Table below for a list of questions to determine if your behavior is adequate .

Instruction in Assessment 7222212 in gauge adequacy ) de Checklist To Determine If The Behavior Of Interest , Challenging Or Desired Behavior , Is Appropriately Can you count or time the behavior , or measure how long it takes before it occurs ?

Did you use observable and measurable terms in the behavior ?

Will a stranger know exactly what behavior to look for after reading your ?

Can you explain what the behavior is not ( give of the behavior ) Can you break the behavior into smaller , and more observable units ?

In addition to the behavior accurately , behavior measurement procedures must be . Behavior can be observed and measured in terms of how many times it occurs or its frequency ( number of coughs , instances of throwing chairs , or interruptions ) how long the behavior occurs or its duration ( duration of screaming , or task ) the form or TOPOGRAPHY ofthe behavior ( eg , how a yoga move is made , or how hair is brushed ) or how long it takes for the behavior to occur following a stimulus or its latency ( how long before someone walks to school after being told to go , or does their work after it has been assigned ) A behavior can also be measured in terms of its remnants , called PERMANENT PRODUCT ( throwing items can be measured by counting the items on the , destroying furniture may be measured by counting the disconnected pieces ) The frequency or duration of behavior within a larger period of time can be measured ( See , 2013 for more ) is termed CONTINUOUS . Reliable of the challenging behavior will facilitate assessment of its tion so that effective interventions can be designed . We will review environmental reasons for challenging behavior after considering prevalence and associated factors . Prevalence , Risk Factors , and Psychosocial Implications of Challenging Behaviors The likelihood of professionals encountering individuals displaying challenging is fairly high . One prevalence estimate of challenging behaviors displayed by people with intellectual disabilities ranges from , according to and ( 2012 ) review of 22 studies . It should be noted that estimates of prevalence of challenging behaviors for individuals with developmental disabilities varies depending on the methodology used ( eg , variations in , assessment measures ) and population addressed ( institutional , residential , nationalities ) When focusing on

Instruction in Assessment behavior , a prevalence rate was found in one parent survey of children with developmental disabilities ( 2012 ) There are many factors ( such as diagnostic category and level of ) that may compound the that the individual with challenging behaviors and others around that individual face . Children with autism are more likely to show problems compared to children without autism and more individuals with severe conditions are more likely to engage in challenging behaviors compared to those with less severe conditions ( Hastings , Emerson , Lancaster , 2011 ) In their sample of over North American children and adolescents with autism , and Kerr ( 2013 ) found that 88 of individuals with autism engaged in mild to severe aggression , with those cases mostly occurring to caregivers ( 56 ) However , even with a sample of high functioning children with autism spectrum disorder , had some sort of behavioral or emotional problems ( Yoon , Ze , Min , 2011 ) Similarly , more severe levels of intellectual disability and autism have been found to be associated with the occurrence of challenging behaviors in a sample of adults with ties in Sweden ( 2013 ) More than half ( 62 ) of these individuals had at least one challenging behavior as gathered through administration of the Behavior Problems Inventory ( Smalls , 2001 ) via interview method . Multiple challenging behaviors or psychiatric conditions may be more likely to be present with individuals who display challenging behaviors ( Law , Law , 2011 ) Based on the use of the and Behavior rating scale administered to 943 children with severe disability , Oliver , Petty , and Hamilton ( 2012 ) found that high frequency repetitive or ritualistic behavior was associated with a greater risk of severe . Moreover , low mood of people with severe and profound intellectual disabilities has been associated with challenging behaviors ( Hayes , McGuire , Oliver , Morrison , 2011 ) A higher rate of challenging behaviors was found with young children with atypical development and no and psychopathology ( anxiety behaviors , conduct problems , problems , as measured by the Baby and Infant Screen for Children with Autism Traits ( 2010 ) Likewise , higher rates of behavior have been found with a sample of adults with developmental disabilities and symptoms of depression ( MacMillan , 2013 ) The presence of communication has also been linked to the occurrence of challenging behaviors ( 2003 , 2009 ) In one study examining the relationship between communication skills , social skills and challenging behaviors with 109 children with though , the presence of challenging behaviors was associated with more impaired social skills than in tion ( Hess , 2010 ) It is important to note that the studies cited above examining associated risk factors with the occurrence of challenging behaviors involved some form of research method , which merely provides information about the type of association and its strength . Correlational results do not provide information about or can not tell if one variable causes another such as the proposition that poor communication skills cause challenging behaviors to occur . It may be that poor communication causes challenging

in Assessment I behavior , challenging behaviors cause poor communication , or quality of early home environment causes both poor communication and challenging behaviors . The careful and control of confounding variables involved with an experimental research method rules out alternative explanations and that methodology is not present with relational research designs . Correlational research simply portrays the relationship between two variables ( positive relationship where both variables increase , negative relationship where one variable increases as the other decreases ) In the research cited above , due to the nature of the variables studied ( type of disability and occurrence of challenging behavior ) only research is possible . The ramifications of challenging behavior are pervasive . Severe behaviors such as , and disruptive behaviors can be some of the most intractable and troublesome to deal with , contributing to staff and teacher stress and burnout ( Hastings . Brown , 2002 Male ( May , 1998 ) Parenting stress has been associated with higher levels of child behavior problems ( 2011 ) et al . 2011 ) found that mothers of children with autism are more likely to have emotional problems compared to mothers of children without autism . The occurrence of challenging behavior by the vidual may also negatively affect attachment with support staff ( De , 2010 ) Staff may see themselves as less able to control the individuals behavior if it is severe and thus less likely to step in to intervene to improve it ( Phillips , Rose , 2011 ) The occurrence of challenging behaviors may lead to the use of restrictive procedures to curb those behaviors ( 2009 ) Allen , Lowe , and Moore ( 2009 ) reviewed social service agencies plans for 901 individuals with developmental disabilities in South Wales , UK , and found that more severe aggressive behavior was associated with a higher use of restrictive procedures ( seclusion , emergency restraint , medications ) Applied Behavior Analysis Applied behavior analysis ( ABA ) principles and techniques provide a means of dressing the challenging behaviors of individuals with developmental disabilities . ABA consists of a variety of procedures to increase socially behaviors ( Cooper , Heron , 2007 ) ABA is based on learning principles and procedures , and many of the techniques used in this field have been empirically validated to be effective at changing overt ( observable ) and covert ( thoughts , feelings , images ) behaviors . The use of ABA has led to a greater understanding of the occurrence of both normal and abnormal behaviors and has resulted in the development of many based treatment procedures for challenging behaviors ( Fisher , Piazza , 2012 ) Environmental Factors Maintaining the Challenging Behavior The main factors that contribute to the occurrence of challenging behavior include the immediate environmental consequences that follow that behavior and the cues or

Instruction in Functional Assessment ents that signal those desired consequences . A recent of over 170 empirical studies found that , in most clinical cases , a clear environmental reason for the individuals challenging behavior was ( et , 2011 ) Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement are the basic environmental or maintaining variables for individuals challenging behavior ( Beavers , 2013 , Singh , Reilly , 2012 , 2009 ) is a term used when events , objects , or sensory stimuli presented immediately following a behavior result in an increase in that behavior in similar situations ( Martin ( Pear , 2011 ) For instance , an adolescent who has severe intellectual disability and is in a wheelchair may grab at staff clothes resulting in much negative attention from the staff member ( a stern look and statement to , Please don do thatl ) Although the staff member may be attempting to decrease the individuals behavior , if the grabbing behavior is increasing and occurring when someone is around , then that behavior may be maintained by positive reinforcement in the form of attention . are the specific consequences that increase the individuals behavior , and can include attention , toys ( or food ( edibles ) It should be recognized that there are many consequences that are positive for a child and what is a positive reinforcer for one may not be for another . Attention ( even in the form of reprimands ) objects ( toys , food , electronic devices ) and specific events ( seeing a show , going for a walk ) can be positive when they increase the behavior that preceded it . Reinforcement may also be produced by engaging in the behavior itself without any mediation by others , termed AUTOMATIC . For instance , the vidual might be engaging in excessive tapping as a function of the sensory stimulation produced by that behavior . Likewise , thumb sucking may occur because of the sensations it produces on the skin . Another major function of challenging behavior is negative reinforcement ( Singh , 2012 ) refers to stimuli or events that when removed or avoided immediately after a behavior increase its rate in similar situations ( Martin ( Pear , 2011 ) A is an object or event that when it is immediately removed ( escape conditioning ) or prevented ( avoidance conditioning ) following a behavior results in that behavior being more likely to occur in similar situations . For example , a child at the dinner table may scream at the top of her lungs leading to the parent sending the child to her room . If that child screams at dinnertime more often , then negative reinforcement , in the form of escaping from the dinner table , may be occurring . As another example , a child who is having with his homework talks to nearby classmates to avoid completing the work . See the Table below for additional examples of challenging behaviors maintained by positive and negative reinforcement .

Instruction in Functional Assessment I , Examples Maintained by Positive and Negative Reinforcement Possible Environmental Causes Of Challenging Behavior Positive Reinforcement Possible Environmental Causes Of Challenging Behavior Negative Reinforcement The individual may receive one of the following after the behavior resulting in its increase One of the following may be removed or avoided after the behavior resulting in its increase Attention ( reprimands given after a child screams ) Tangible ( hitting anther child to get a toy , grabbing someone food ) Automatic ( nonsocial ) sucking due to the sensation it produces , regurgitation to stimulate the esophagus , screaming because of the sound produced , tantrums result in unpleasant task or situation being removed ) Attention ( running away to remove undesired attention ) Automatic ( nonsocial ) hitting head to relieve pain , being aggressive to remove noise or get out of a rocking due to inner ear stimulation ) crowd ) As is the case with positive , a stimulus that is a negative reinforcer for one individual may not be so for another . The best way to determine if something is a negative reinforcer is to test whether the rate of a behavior increases when certain events are removed immediately after that behavior compared to a condition in which no are delivered following the behavior . To ensure consistency in the results and rule out confounding factors , this test should be replicated or repeated in an fashion where A no consequence and a consequence for behavior is provided . A history of reinforcement for the occurrence of challenging behavior in addition to the presence of certain antecedent stimuli or conditions that set the stage or increase the for the behavior ( work assignment , certain person ) should be . The purpose of assessment is to identify the reason or function for the individuals challenging behavior . An analysis of the function of behavior entails breaking the situation into smal er units to allow a clearer understanding and determination of the behavioral principle ( positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement ) involved in controlling the behavior ( Martin Pear , 2011 ) The motivational condition , antecedent , behavior , immediate consequence , and long term effects should be to reveal the behavioral principle that is involved , as illustrated in the box below . A refers to a temporary state or condition that changes the value of the reinforcer and the probability of behavior that leads to that reinforcer ( Michael , 2000 ) For instance , after not water for several hours while out in hot weather , the value of a drink as a positive reinforcer will increase and there is a greater likelihood of the individual asking for something to drink . Additional examples of how the individuals situation can be broken down , thereby better understood by analyzing the motivational condition , antecedent stimulus , behavior , and immediate consequence is shown in the Table below .

Instruction in Assessment Examples of a analysis situation in terms , antecedents , and Motivational . Immediate Lon Term Behavioral . Behavior . Condition Situation Consequence Principle More likely to Ad . Hunger Middle of night up Provided with scream and yell Tangible positive ens pudding in future similar reinforcement situations Lonely or no Young adult in Staff member More likely to social interaction Presence of staff wheel chair grabs says , No , dont do grab staff members Attention positive member , in similar reinforcement for hours staff member that ! situations More likely to get . out of seat and Teacher says , Child gets out of th . Gets out of doing socialize when Escape negative . Comp is sea an . assignment , assignment given reinforcement assi wi nei . assignments next time Sensory More likely to Low levels of Light switch Repeatedly lights when Automatic positive imu a ion stimulation present light on and off . in a similar reinforcement light situation Determining the function of an challenging be can , at times , be . For a small percentage of cases , the individuals behavior may be controlled by mu tiple functions or be unable to be ( Beavers , 2011 Mueller , 2011 ) challenging behaviors of 521 participants reviewed by Beavers and ( 2011 ) showed only had multiple functions with most behaviors involving multiple response . In a small percent of cases ( roughly ) the individuals behavior may be maintained by idiosyncratic variables or , particular antecedents or consequences to that case ( Roscoe , Rooker , Wheeler , 2013 ) As et al . 2013 ) note in their review of the research literature , variables such as preferred conversation ( Roscoe et , 2010 ) instructional style ( et , 2004 ) or the therapist leaving the room ( Edwards et , 2002 ) may be involved in setting the context for increased likelihood of the occurrence of the individuals challenging behavior . These idiosyncratic variables may be to pinpoint unless procedures are tailored to the individuals circumstances . Additional factors that may contribute to the individuals challenging behavior can be seen in Table below .

Instruction in Assessment Possible relevant factors may be related to Organismic ' Motivational state ( hungry , thirsty ) Temporary bodily states ( fatigue , menstrual cramps ) Emotional state ( jealousy , frustration ) and other conditioned responses ( fear , anger , anxiety ) State of health ( headache , allergies ) Medication effects and side effects ( lethargic ) Familial ' Abuse , neglect , nutrition , poverty , loss of work , death in family , nomic , factors , ethnicity ' Size of room , number of people , teacher proximity , temperature , noise , lighting , unclear directions , unpredictability , inadequate help , unclear expectations ' Events , holidays , certain activities ( dances ) visitors Special Education Perspective Many children with behavior disabilities ( including challenging behaviors are served in general education classroom settings . Approximately 25 of all school age dren identified with a disability are labeled as having a behavior disability ( Vaughn ( 2009 ) as many males as females are labeled as having and more children who are African American are labeled than any other ethnicity ( Vaughn ( 2009 ) School districts and agencies often lack personnel trained in the professional decision making process to handle these situations and so must hire experts to provide training at high financial cost ( Hall ( Hall , 2003 ) It is of critical importance to develop partnerships between schools that lack the expertise and colleges and universities that can train teachers to manage challenging behaviors ( Johns Carr , 1995 ) The movement for of students with disabilities in public schools has had a major impact on the way teachers are trained to work with all students and on the way students learn in the classroom setting ( 2010 ) The sion movement , which began in the early after decades of integration of students with disabilities into the least restrictive environments ( for learning , redefines the philosophy of teaching and learning so that all learners , regardless of abilities , have the opportunity to work on their academic and social skills alongside of their peers . Inclusion is the process of teaching so all students can process and understand the material in whatever way is best for them . Inclusive education is a core belief and set of teaching practices that supports the tenet that all students should be full members of the community ( 2007 , However , students with challenging behaviors are often found to be segregated due to those behaviors . Professionals and families must work together to ensure 10

Instruction in Assessment I that the effects of challenging behavior are addressed in inclusive educational settings that provide heterogynous groupings for students . As inclusive classrooms across the United States continue to evolve according to legal mandates , teachers beliefs and practices are still being challenged by the changes in the students who make up their classroom communities ( 2007 ) As new , service level teachers enter the field of education with training , they must demonstrate the dispositions , knowledge , and skills to work with all students . The instructional demands for teachers are staggering many classes have students for whom English is not their mary language , students who have experienced trauma , students who are years behind their classmates , and students who lack basic experiences for understanding their world . For teachers , the demands are to assist students and their families in the identification and remediation of challenging behaviors that prevent full inclusion placements . However , the movement may not be successful especially for those students with significant behavioral needs if educators can not find a way to identify , assess , and intervene in these significant behavioral challenges in classrooms . A strong need exists for effective methods to decrease the challenging behaviors of individuals with developmental disabilities . Summary Individuals with developmental disabilities may display a broad array of challenging behaviors and lack the social and adaptive behaviors that are necessary for functioning in everyday life . However , students with disabilities have the right to be educated in tings that are heterogeneous . Inclusion has been used to describe the education of students with disabilities in general education settings or inclusive settings with peers who can act as role models . conditions for the individual may be present and increase the and complexity of that case for the professional addressing the individuals needs . The first step when attempting to help the individual is to that persons challenging and desired behaviors , which can assist in its measurement , ment , and treatment . Environmental factors , such as positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement , are major reasons for the occurrence of challenging behaviors and must be addressed in assessment and treatment procedures . Applied behavior analysis is an approach that can be used to teach adaptive and desirable behaviors and decrease the challenging behaviors observed in various settings with this population . Chapter will review FA methods as a means to identify the function of individuals behaviors . 11

Instruction in Assessment Discussion Questions . What challenging behaviors are most important to address ?

What considerations are important when prioritizing which of several challenging behaviors should be targeted ?

Discuss whether risk factors are likely to cause challenging behaviors . Explain why it is to know what the cause or challenging behaviors is ( hint draw from your knowledge of research methods ) Why is it important to understand the function of an individual challenging behavior ?

12 Instruction in Assessment Exercise Behavior Definition . What are the characteristics of a behavior ?

Are each of the following of behavior adequate ?

If not , then revise the to improve it . a . Non compliance a child does not complete the instruction delivered by the experimenter within of presentation of the instruction Stereotypy hands or arms , rocking torso , jumping and turning in circles , waving , mouthing Aggression grabbing and pulling on the experimenter or cursing . Read the following behavioral and determine if you think the problem in bold is . If your answer is no , change the problem behavior by it appropriately . is very disrespectful in that she her teachers when she does not want to do what they ask . 13

Instruction in Assessment I Paula engages in inappropriate interactions with her peers by being quiet and disagreeable . Inappropriate vocalizations that says include loud or statements such as No ! and I want to go . teasing . Exercise Identifying , Defining , and Measuring Behavior With a partner , go to a public location ( cafeteria , library , building hallway or yard ) and identify a behavior that one or many individuals are displaying . Be sure that the behavior occurs fairly frequently ( eg , at least once per min ) the behavior . Indicate how to measure it ( eg , frequency , duration , latency , permanent product ) Select a data sheet from Chapter templates . You and your partner should independently measure it . 14

Instruction in Assessment . Compare your data with your partners . Did you agree on all occurrences of the ?

Why or why not ?

How could you improve your of the behavior ?

Exercise Practice in Identifying Behavioral Principles Next , determine for each of the following if this is an example of positive or negative reinforcement . Sally receives a point on her score card for making a perfect shot in basketball . She is shooting baskets better than ever . Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement A child is in the dentist seat and when the dentist goes to insert a tool in his mouth , the child shakes his head and says , Nol The dentist removes the tool and moves away from the child . The dentist always has a hard time with this little fellow . Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Frederick is a teenager with an obesity problem who joins the gym , and regularly works out . His best friend works out with him and repeatedly tells him how he is getting stronger and right after each session . Frederick goes to the gym more often . Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Whenever a teacher places a worksheet on the students desk , the student then gets up and sharpens an already sharp pencil to get out of doing the work . Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement In school art class , made some paper to give to his mom , which resulted in many hugs and kisses from his mom . He does this more often now . Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement 15

Instruction in Assessment Exercise Analysis of Challenging Behavior Exercise . Think of someone you know who engages in a challenging behavior . the individuals challenging behavior so that it might be reliably observed and measured . Speculate on the possible environmental reason for it by completing the following chart . Motivating . Immediate LongTerm Behavioral Condition Antecedent Behavior Consequence Effect Principle 16