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UNIT EARLY ADULTHOOD Unit Early Adulthood 283 Emerging Adulthood Cognition Emerging Adulthood Historically , early adulthood was considered to last from approximately the age of 18 ( the end of adolescence ) until 40 or 45 ( the beginning of middle adulthood ) More recently , have divided this 25 year age period into two separate stages Emerging adulthood followed by early adulthood . Although these age periods differ in their physical , cognitive , and social development , overall the age period from 18 to 40 is a time of peak physical capabilities and the emergence of more mature cognitive development , independence , and the establishment of intimate relationships . Emerging Adulthood Emerging adulthood is the period between the late teens and early twenties ages , although some researchers have included up to age 29 in their ( Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood , 2016 ) Jeffrey ( 2000 ) argues that emerging adulthood is neither adolescence nor is it young adulthood . Individuals in this age period have left behind the relative dependency of childhood and adolescence but have not yet taken on the responsibilities of adulthood . Emerging adulthood is a time of life when many different directions remain possible , when little about the future is decided for certain , when the scope of independent exploration of life possibilities is greater for most people than it will be at any other period of the life course ( 2000 , 469 ) characteristics of emerging adulthood that distinguish it from adolescence and young adulthood ( 2006 ) It is the age of identity exploration . In 1950 , Erik proposed that it was during adolescence that humans wrestled with the question of identity . Yet , even ( 1968 ) commented on a trend during the century of a prolonged adolescence in industrialized societies . Today , most identity development occurs during the late teens and early twenties rather than adolescence . It is during emerging adulthood that people are exploring their career choices and ideas about intimate relationships , setting the foundation for adulthood . also described this time period as the age of instability ( 2000 , 2006 ) Exploration generates uncertainty and instability . Emerging adults change jobs , relationships , and residences more frequently than other age groups . This is also the age of . Being is not the same as being Adolescents are more than emerging adults . reports that in his research , he found emerging adults to be very considerate of the feelings of others , especially their parents . They now begin to see their parents as people not just parents , something most adolescents fail to do ( 2006 ) Nonetheless , emerging adults focus more on themselves , as they realize that they have few obligations to others and that this is the time where they can do what they want with their life . This is also the age of feeling . When asked if they feel like adults , more 18 to 25 answer yes and no than do teens or adults over the age of 25 ( 2001 ) Most emerging adults have gone through the changes of puberty , are typically no longer in high school , and many have also moved out of their parents home . Thus , they no longer feel as dependent as they did as teenagers . Yet , they may still be dependent on their parents to some degree , and they have not completely attained some of the indicators of adulthood , such as their education , obtaining a good job , being in a committed relationship , or being responsible for others . It is not surprising that found that 60 of 18 to 25 felt that in some ways they were adults , but in some ways , they were not ( 2001 ) 284 Emerging Adulthood Cognition
. Emerging adulthood is the age of possibilities . It is a time period of optimism as more 18 to 25 feel that they will someday get to where they want to be in life . 2000 , 2006 ) suggests that this optimism is because these dreams have yet to be tested . For example , it is easier to believe that you will eventually your soul mate when you have yet to have had a serious relationship . It may also be a chance to change directions , for those whose lives up to this point have been . The experiences of children and teens are by the choices and decisions of their parents . If the parents are dysfunctional , there is little a child can do about it . In emerging adulthood , however , people can move out and move on . They have the chance to transform their lives and move away from unhealthy environments . Even those whose lives were happy and as children , now have the opportunity in emerging adulthood to become independent and make their own decisions about the direction they would like their lives to take . Socioeconomic Class and Emerging Adulthood . The theory of emerging adulthood was initially criticized as only reflecting upper , young adults in the United States and not those who were working class or poor ( 2016 ) Consequently , reviewed results from the 2012 Clark University Poll of Emerging Adults , whose participants were demographically similar to the United States population . Results primarily indicated across aspects of the theory , including positive and negative perceptions of the and views on education , work , love , sex , and marriage . Two differences were found , the being that emerging adults from lower socioeconomic classes more negativity in their emotional lives , including higher levels of depression . Secondly , those in the lowest socioeconomic group were more likely to agree that they had not been able to support to obtain the education they believed they needed . Overall , concluded that emerging adulthood exists wherever there is a period between the end of adolescence and entry into adult roles , but also acknowledged that social , cultural , and historical were important . Variations . The features proposed in the theory of emerging adulthood originally were based on research involving Americans between ages 18 and 29 from various ethnic groups , social classes , and geographical regions ( 2004 , 2016 ) To what extent does the theory of emerging adulthood apply internationally ?
The answer to this question depends greatly on what part of the world is considered . Demographers make a useful distinction between the developing countries that comprise the majority of the worlds population and the economically developed countries that are part of the Organization for Economic and Development ( including the United States , Canada , Western Europe , Japan , South Korea , Australia , and New Zealand . The current population of countries ( also called developed countries ) is billion , about 18 of the total world population ( United Nations Development Programme , 2011 ) The rest of the population resides in developing countries , which have much lower median incomes , much lower median educational attainment , and much higher incidence of illness , disease , and early death . Let us consider emerging adulthood in other countries as little is known about the experiences of in developing countries . The same demographic changes as described above for the United States have taken place in other countries as well . This is true of increasing participation in education , as well as increases in the median ages for entering marriage and parenthood ( 2010 ) However , there is also substantial variability in how emerging adulthood is experienced across countries . Europe is the region where emerging adulthood is longest and most leisurely . The median ages for entering marriage and parenthood are near 30 in most European countries ( 2007 ) Europe today is the location of the most , generous , and egalitarian societies in the world , in fact , in human history ( 2007 ) Governments pay for tertiary education , assist young people in jobs , and provide generous unemployment for those who can not work . In northern Europe , many governments also provide housing support . Emerging adults in European societies make the most of these advantages , gradually making their way to adulthood during their twenties while enjoying travel and leisure with friends . The lives of emerging adults in developed Asian countries , such as Japan and South Korea , are in some ways similar to the lives of emerging adults in Europe and in some ways strikingly different . Like European emerging adults , Asian Emerging Adulthood Cognition 285
emerging adults tend to enter marriage and parenthood around age 30 ( 2011 ) Like European emerging adults , Asian emerging adults in Japan and South Korea enjoy the of living in societies with generous social welfare systems that provide support for them in making the transition to adulthood , including free university education and substantial unemployment . However , in other ways , the experience of emerging adulthood in Asian countries is markedly different than in Europe . Europe has a long history of individualism , and today emerging adults carry that legacy with them in their focus on and leisure during emerging adulthood . In contrast , Asian cultures have a shared cultural history emphasizing collectivism and family obligations . Although Asian cultures have become more individualistic in recent decades , as a consequence of globalization , the legacy of collectivism persists in the lives of emerging adults . They pursue identity explorations and development during emerging adulthood , like their American and European counterparts , but within narrower boundaries set by their sense of obligations to others , especially their parents ( 2011 ) For example , in their views of the most important criteria for becoming an adult , emerging adults in the United States and Europe consistently rank independence among the most important markers of Figure . Is your culture one that promotes romantic relationships for emerging adults ?
Or does it encourage you to wait till you re cultural background especially emphasize becoming older ?
What would it be like to live in the opposite culture ?
adulthood . In contrast , emerging adults with an Asian capable of supporting parents as among the most important criteria ( 2003 Nelson , Badger , Wu , 2004 ) This sense of family obligation may curtail their identity explorations in emerging adulthood to some extent , and compared to emerging adults in the West , they pay more heed to their parents wishes about what they should study , what job they should take , and where they should live ( 2007 ) When Does Adulthood Begin ?
According to and ( 2008 ) in years past the process of becoming an adult was more clearly marked by rites of passage . For many , marriage and parenthood were considered entry into adulthood . However , these role transitions are no longer considered the important markers of adulthood ( 2001 ) Economic and social changes have resulted in more young adults attending college ( 2008 ) and delaying marriage and having children ( 1994 , 1999 ) Consequently , current research has found independence and accepting responsibility for oneself to be the most important markers of adulthood in Western culture across age ( 2001 ) and ethnic groups ( 2004 ) In looking at college students perceptions of adulthood , and ( 2008 ) found that some students still view rites of passage as important markers . College students who placed more importance on role transition markers , such as parenthood and marriage , belonged to a , were traditionally aged ( belonged to an ethnic minority , were of a traditional marital status ( not cohabitating ) or belonged to a religious organization , particularly for men . These supported the view that people holding collectivist or more traditional values place more importance on role transitions as markers of adulthood . In contrast , older college students and those cohabitating did not value role transitions as markers of adulthood as strongly . Young Adults Living Arrangements . In 2014 , for the time in more than 130 years , adults 18 to 34 were more likely to be living in their parents home than they were to be living with a spouse or partner in their own household ( Fry , 2016 ) The current trend is that young Americans are not choosing to settle down romantically before age 35 . Since 1880 , living 286 Emerging Adulthood Cognition
with a romantic partner was the most common living arrangement among young adults . In 1960 , 62 of Americas to were living with a spouse or partner in their own household , while only 20 were living with their parents . By 2014 , of early adults were living with a spouse or partner in their own household , while 321 were living in the home of their parent ( Another 14 of early adults lived alone , were a single parent , or lived with one or more roommates . The remaining 22 lived in the home of another family member ( such as a grandparent , or sibling ) a , or in group quarters ( college dormitories ) Comparing ethnic groups , 36 of black and Hispanic early adults lived at home , while 30 of white young adults lived at home . As can be seen in Figure , gender differences in living arrangements were also noted in that young men were living with parents at a higher rate than young women . In 2014 , 35 of young men were residing with their parents , while 28 were living with a spouse or partner in their own household . Young women were more likely to be living with a spouse or partner ( 35 ) than living with their parents ( 29 ) Additionally , more young women ( 16 ) than young men ( 13 ) were heading up a household without a spouse or partner , primarily because women are more likely to be single parents living with their children . Lastly , young men ( 25 ) were more likely than young women ( 19 ) to be living in the home of another family member , a , or in some type of group quarters ( Fry , 2016 ) What are some factors that help explain these changes in living arrangements ?
First , early adults are increasingly postponing marriage or choosing not to marry or . Lack of employment and lower wages have especially contributed to males residing with their parents . Men who are employed are less likely to live at home . Wages for young men ( adjusting for ) have been falling since 1970 and correlate with the rise in young men living with their parents . The recent recession and recovery ( has also contributed to the increase in early adults living at home . College increased during the recession , which further increased early adults living at home . However , once early adults possess a college degree , they are more likely to establish their own households ( Fry , 2016 ) Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood Young men are now more likely to live with a parent than to live with a spouse or partner not so for women ( 70 Me 50 56 Married or 50 40 , 30 Living in home 20 10 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 14 70 Women 58 60 Married or 30 20 Living In parent ( I ' home 10 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 FEW ' Figure Emerging adulthood brings with it the consolidation of formal operational thought , and the continued integration of the Emerging Adulthood Cognition i 287
parts of the brain that serve emotion , social processes , and planning and problem solving . As a result , rash decisions and risky behavior decrease rapidly across early adulthood . Increases in epistemic cognition are also seen , as young adults , or thinking about thinking , continues to grow , especially young adults who continue with their schooling . Perry Scheme . One of the theories of cognitive development in early adulthood originated with William Perry ( 1970 ) who studied undergraduate students at Harvard University . Perry noted that over the course of students college years , cognition tended to shift from dualism ( absolute , black and white , right and wrong type of thinking ) to multiplicity ( recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known ) to relativism ( understanding the importance of the context of all relative to other factors ) Similar to formal operational thinking in adolescence , this change in thinking in early adulthood is affected by educational experiences . Table Stages of Perry Scheme Stage Summary of Position in Perry Scheme Basic Example Dualism The authorities know the tutor knows what is right and wrong are the Others are my tutor does know what is right and wrong but others do There are some uncertainties and the tutors do know but out there is in to authorities are working on them to the Out ) ry truth Multiplicity ( a ) Everyone has the right to their own opinion different tutors think different ( The Want the right answers there is an answer that the tutors want and we have to it They want us to think in a certain way . there are no right and wrong answers , it depends on the but not equally situation , but some answers might be better than others You have to make your own decisions what is important is not what the tutor thinks but what I think Relativism First commitment Several Commitments Believe own values , respect others , be ready to for this particular topic I think that for these topics I think that I know what I believe in and what I think is valid , others may learn think differently and I prepared to reconsider my views Adapted from Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning Some researchers argue that a qualitative shift in cognitive development tales place for some emerging adults during their mid to late twenties . As evidence , they point to studies documenting continued integration and focalization of brain functioning , and studies suggesting that this developmental period often represents a turning point , when young adults engaging in risky behaviors ( eg , gang involvement , substance abuse ) or an unfocused lifestyle ( drifting from job to job or relationship to relationship ) seem to wake up and take ownership for their own development . It is a common point for young adults to make decisions about completing or returning to school , and making and following through on decisions about vocation , relationships , living arrangements , and lifestyle . Many young adults can actually remember these turning points as a moment when they could suddenly see where they were headed ( the likely outcomes of their risky behaviors or apathy ) and actively decided to take a more pathway . 288 I Emerging Adulthood Cognition
Optional Reading Current Trends in Education According to the National Center for Higher Education Management Systems ( in the United States I 84 of 18 to 24 year olds and 88 of those 25 and older have a high school diploma or its equivalent I 36 of 18 to 24 year olds and of 25 to 49 year olds attend college I 59 of those 25 and older have completed some college I of those 25 and older have a bachelors degree or higher , with slightly more women ( 33 ) than men ( 32 ) holding a college degree ( Ryan . 2016 ) The rate of college attainment has grown more slowly in the United States than in a number of other nations in recent years ( 2014 ) This may be due to fact that the cost of attaining a degree is higher in the US . than in most other nations . In 2017 , 65 of college seniors who graduated from private and public colleges had student loan debt , and nationally owed an average of , a decline from 2016 ( The Institute for College Access Success ( 2018 ) According to the most recent annual report , the rate of debt varied widely across states , as well as between colleges . The after graduation debt ranged from in Utah to in Connecticut . debt states are mainly in the West , and states in the Northeast . In recent years there has been a concern about students carrying more debt and being more likely to default when attending institutions . In 2016 , students at schools borrowed an average of , which was 41 higher than students at schools that year . In addition , 30 of students attending colleges default on their federal student loans . In contrast , the default level of those who attended public institutions is only ( 2018 ) College student debt has become a key political issue at both the state and federal level , and some states have been taking steps to increase spending and grants to help students with the cost of college . However , 15 of the Class of college debt was owed to private lenders ( 2018 ) Such debt has less consumer protection , fewer options for repayment , and is typically negotiated at a higher interest rate . See Table for a debt comparison of US . States . Graduate School Larger amounts of student debt actually occur at the graduate level ( 2019 ) In 2019 , the highest average debts were concentrated in the medical . Average median debt for graduate programs included I for a master degree I for a doctoral degree I for a professional degree Worldwide , over 80 of college educated adults are employed , compared with just over 70 of those with a Emerging Adulthood Cognition 289
high school or equivalent diploma , and only 60 of those with no high school diploma ( 2015 ) Those with a college degree will earn more over the course of their life time . Moreover , the of college education go beyond employment and . The found that around the world , adults with higher educational attainment were more likely to volunteer , felt they had more control over their lives , and thus were more interested in the world around them . Studies of college students that they gain a more distinct identity and become more socially competent and less dogmatic and ethnocentric compared to those not in college ( 2006 ) Is college worth the time and investment ?
College is certainly a substantial investment each year , with the burden falling on students and their families in the , and covered mainly by the government in many other nations . Nonetheless , the both to the individual and the society outweighs the initial costs . As can be seen in Figure , those in America with the most advanced degrees earn the highest income and have the lowest unemployment . References , 2000 ) Emerging adulthood A theory of development from late teens through the twenties . American Psychologist , 55 , 2001 ) Conceptions of the transitions to adulthood Perspectives from adolescence to midlife . Journal of Adult Development , 2003 ) Conceptions of the transition to adulthood among emerging adults in American ethnic groups . New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development , 100 , 2004 ) Conceptions of the transition to adulthood among emerging adults in American ethnic groups . In ( Cultural conceptions of the transition to adulthood New directions in child and adolescent development . San Francisco . 2006 ) Stanley Hall adolescence Brilliance and . History of Psychology , 2011 ) Emerging adulthood ( The cultural psychology of a new life stage . In Jensen ( Ed . Bridging cultural and developmental psychology New syntheses in theory , research , and policy ( New York , NY Oxford University Press . 2016 ) Does emerging adulthood theory apply across social classes ?
National data on a persistent question . Emerging Adulthood , 1994 ) Adolescence terminable and interminable When does adolescence end ?
Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 23 , 2007 ) The long and leisurely route Coming of age in Europe today . Current History , 106 , 290 Emerging Adulthood Cognition , 1984 ) Dialectical thinking and adult development . Pub . 2007 ) From duty to desire Emerging adulthood in Europe and its consequences . Child Development Perspectives , 1950 ) Childhood and society . New York Norton . 1968 ) Youth and crisis . New York Norton . Fry , 2016 ) For first time in modern era , living with parents edges out other living arrangements for to . Washington , Pew Research Center . Fry , 2018 ) are the largest generation in the labor force . Washington , Pew Research Center . Retrieved from tank 2018 04 11 force , A . 1999 ) The nature and functions of social exchange in adolescent romantic relationships . In , Brown , The development of romantic relationships in adolescence ( New York Cambridge University Press . Nelson , Badger , Wu , 2004 ) The of culture in emerging adulthood Perspectives of Chinese college students . International Journal of Behavioral Development , 28 , Perry , 1970 ) Forms of ethical and intellectual development in the college years A scheme . New York , NY Holt , and Winston . A . 2011 ) Identity development in multiple cultural . In Jensen ( Ed . Bridging cultural and developmental psychology New syntheses in theory , research and policy ( New York , NY Oxford University Press . A . 2008 ) role transitions as indicators of adulthood in the century . Who are they ?
Journal Development , 15 ( doi , 2007 ) Rethinking emerging adulthood in Japan Perspectives from single women . Child Development Perspectives , 1998 ) The development of logic in adulthood . NY Plenum Press . Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood ( 2016 ) Overview . Retrieved from about ( 2010 ) Gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education . United Nations Statistics Division . Retrieved November , 2010 , from ?
OER Attribution Lifespan Development A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution International License Emerging Adulthood Cognition 291
Media Han River Riders Seoul South Korea Patrick is licensed under a Attribution NonCommercial ) license ST Pew Research Center Click for image reuse 292 Emerging Adulthood Cognition Vocational Development HEATHER AND ELLEN SKINNER Learning Vocational Development the primary task of vocational choice . What are the main theories ( and underlying ) describing vocational development ?
What are the three periods of vocational development ?
What are the of the last period ?
What are the main factors that vocational decision making ?
What is the role of personality and vocational interests ?
What is the role of families ?
What is the role of societal and cultural factors ?
How is vocational decision making different for youth who are not college bound ?
A primary task of early adulthood is vocational choice . The process of occupational goals and launching a career are challenging , and involve a whole series of decisions and actions that culminate in most people settling into a job or profession sometime during their twenties . Like so many developmental processes , this one starts at a very young age , proceeds through several typical steps , and can take a variety of pathways . Work represents a crucial life domain , and plays an important role all during middle and late adulthood , potentially psychological and economic , sense of purpose , cognitive and social development , and how the psychosocial task of versus stagnation will be negotiated during middle adulthood . As young adults will tell you , it can be challenging to meaningful work that ( well with your own passions and strengths ( allows you to independently support yourself and ( can be integrated with other commitments , like family , friends , children , and recreational pastimes . Many factors at the personal , interpersonal , and societal levels contribute to this process , and make vocational easier or harder . Many young people are confronted with discrimination and exclusion as they negotiate this process . Status hierarchies organized around class , ethnicity , gender , and other categories produce inequities in college attendance , employment opportunities , and levels of pay . factors , like historical changes in the cost of college , the national economic outlook ( the Great of 2008 and 2020 ) and the changing job market , also play big roles . For example , compared to their grandparents , youth of today are much more likely to hold multiple kinds of jobs over their lifetimes , making vocational development more than ever a lifelong process . Development of Vocational Like many aspects of identity development , selecting a work role is a gradual process that begins in early childhood . It Vocational Development 293
is complex and includes factors highlighted by multiple ( as suggested by , it involves people intrinsic interests and talents ( consistent with mechanistic , it is also shaped by processes of social learning and socialization ( expectations , demands , and rewards of the local and distal social context ) and ( as organismic remind us , the cognitive processes employed by children youth , and young adults show qualitative shifts , meaning that their understanding , decision making , and participation in this process show regular changes . Hence , a contextual lifespan developmental approach which incorporates all these factors , as well as the historical and social forces mentioned previously , provides a good framework for thinking about processes of vocational development . Major theories hold that children and youth normatively move through three periods along this pathway ( 2005 Super , 1990 , 1994 ) Fantasy period . Starting in early childhood , young children become aware of the world of work , and the options and status connected to particular vocations . Across early and middle childhood , children explore job options largely through imagination and fantasy ( Howard Walsh , 2010 ) Using pretend play , stories , discussions about the future , and even their choice of Halloween costumes , young children try out a variety of occupations , selecting ones with which they are familiar that sound exciting and fun . In answer to the question What do you want to be when you grow up ?
young children are likely to name the jobs held by their families and neighbors , or exciting or jobs , like and rock star . But they are just as likely to select imaginary options , like superhero , dragon keeper , or quidditch player . For most young children , these initial preferences provide a window on the child socialization experiences and have little to do with the decisions they will eventually make . Preparing Young Children for the World of Work Two ways that parents can help prepare young children for the world of work are ( encouraging them to help out with chores around the house starting when they are toddlers , and ( giving them their own money to manage in the form of an allowance , starting at the age of or years old . Many middle class parents underestimate children ability to participate fully in these activities at such young ages , but if parents have the patience to allow toddlers to really help out when they are most interested in doing so , they can reap the reward of children continuing willingness and pride in taking on family responsibilities , as described in this article on How to Get your Kids to Do Chores . And if children manage their own allowances starting at a young age , they learn more quickly about saving money and making informed decisions about spending . Tentative period . Starting at the end of middle childhood , with the onset of formal operations , adolescents begin to understand vocational decision making in more complex ways . Between the ages of 11 and 16 , as young adolescents are working on the task of identity development more generally , they begin to think about their own part in the vocational equation ( what they like to do ( their interests , passions , and values ) and ( what they are good at . Advances in cognition at this age bring with it an increased capacity for social comparison , and youth begin to evaluate how their skills and abilities in areas stack up compared to those of their . Increasing understanding of the requirements of certain jobs provides a template for understanding whether particular vocational pathways are likely to be options for them . Unfortunately , this is the same age at which messages from teachers and from society at large ( about who is smart enough or good enough at math and science ) can discourage youth ( especially young women and adolescents from ethnic minority backgrounds ) from pursuing careers that require advanced training or degrees . In conversations with youth about their future careers , parents and other adults can hear the complexity of their considerations . For example , at the end of high school Leona says , On the one hand , I really do love music , writing songs is such a comfort when Im down . I can play or instruments and I want to play in a band forever . On the other hand , I sure enjoy kids , babysitting is 294 Vocational Development
such fun . I wish all kids could make music together . Maybe Ill be a music teacher or work at the Rock and Roll Camp for Realistic period . Starting in their late teens and early twenties , youth consolidate their own side of the vocational equation ( ie , their interests , abilities , and values ) and begin out how these with the occupational options provided in their geographic region . Society side of the vocational equation is grounded in hard practical and economic realities of the job market what kinds of work society will pay you to do . During this period , youth learn about the categories of jobs that are available , how hard they are to get , and the needed to be eligible for careers . Some of these realizations come from the school of hard knocks , as teenagers look at the jobs that their family members and neighbors hold and as they themselves apply for summer or jobs . This is the period of vocational development when occupational search begins in earnest . A step during this period is further exploration , when youth gather more information about how a range of potential careers might align with their personal preferences . If young adults are in college ( about 70 of high school graduates enroll ) this might include taking a variety of courses that interest them to investigate potential majors , talking to other students and career advisors , joining clubs and participating in extracurricular activities , seeking out internships , or volunteering at or other organizations . In the phase , crystallization , young adults settle on a general occupational category , and then experiment further until they decide on a job ( Stringer , 2011 ) The Realistic period can be discouraging for youth from low income and ethnic minority families , who may encounter diminished educational and employment opportunities , and discrimination in college admissions and hiring . Status hierarchies organized around class ( wealth and education , or socioeconomic status , SES ) mean that the processes of vocational choice differ markedly between youth from rich and poor backgrounds . Some young people from backgrounds do not have the privilege of attending college or exploring career options . Many work throughout high school and once they graduate , they need to get whatever jobs they can to help support their families . For some youth who live in economically depressed areas ( some rural regions or Native reservations ) these dawning realizations may lead them to leave their families for cities or regions with greater economic opportunities . Career opportunities for people of color may be limited by societal expectations and discrimination in areas ranging from guidance counseling and hiring to professional networking , mentorship and promotion , with the result that Black and Hispanic people , along with other groups of people of color , are in and jobs ( 1990 Walsh et al , 2001 , Flores , Navarro , 2005 ) The between class and ethnicity is particularly pronounced in vocational development On one hand , SES plays a large role , in that disparities in educational quality due to inadequate school funding directly inhibit career choices . On the other hand , some of the most pronounced ethnic differences in employment and opportunities are actually found when comparing members of different ethnic groups who are of a similar SES those who are , or , for example ( Wilson , and Wu , 1995 ) Just like identity development , vocational can be at later ages for any number of reasons dissatisfaction with a current line of work , or , geographical relocation , emergence of new job sectors , or changes in other life domains ( divorce or birth of a child ) These changes can initiate additional rounds of vocational decision making , including about one interests , talents , and values , exploration of alternative possible career choices , and of new lines of work . When such takes place during middle age , job seekers may be especially attuned to the ways in which careers allow them to engage with the developmental task of . That is , people may focus especially on issues of value , meaning , and purpose , so they can career pathways that allow them to mentor and guide others , and make lasting contributions to society . Vocational Development 295
Factors that Vocational Although most youth proceed along the normative path of vocational development described above , other pathways are possible . Some young people identity their chosen profession at a very young age ( often following in familial footsteps ) and directly pursue that goal all throughout high school and college . Others make up and then change their minds multiple times , even going so far as to start different careers before out what is right for them , while others remain undecided for long periods of time , and may support themselves with a series of low level jobs while they make progress on this task . Others may pick a calling for which society provides little remuneration ( artist or social activist ) and then ways to support themselves on the side . Young people who attend college are provided additional time and scaffolding , since college is designed to help students learn about their own interests and values , and gain knowledge and credentials relevant to vocations . Youth from lower SES families may have fewer choices and feel more pressure to begin work as soon as possible , making it more for them to attend college or explore vocational options . Although vocational choice is considered to be the result of processes , it is important to emphasize that discerning one vocation is not a cold calculation , in which people rationally weigh their skills , interest , and values against multiple job options to come up with the logical Instead vocational development is a process that is deeply entwined with identity development , and so includes dimensions focused on meaning , value , motivation , emotion , and social relationships . It is a task that is actively negotiated and can be fraught with confusion , anxiety , and frustration . The extent to which this task will progress in a positive direction depends on a wide variety of individual , social , and societal factors . Vocational Interests and Personalities People are drawn to particular vocations based on the between their own interests ( or vocational personalities ) and the nature of work environments . One of the most theories of vocational personalities was developed by John Holland ( Holland , 1985 , 1997 ) It was introduced in 1959 ( Holland , 1959 ) and is still in use in many areas today , such as career counseling ( 2010 Click here to view article ) The theory core idea is that people typically fall into one of six vocational personality types , each of which is characterized by a of interests , preferred activities , beliefs , abilities , values , and characteristics . These interest can be used to identify the kinds of jobs that might be a good match for people with different vocational personalities . It is important to note that many people have more than one set of interests , and would do well in a variety of professions ( Holland , 1997 Spokane , 2005 ) Realistic . People who like solving real world problems working with their hands building , or making things and operating equipment , tools or machines . May be a good for mechanical and manual occupations like engineering , electrician , horticulturist , or farmer . Investigative . People who like to discover and research ideas observe , investigate and experiment ask questions and solve problems . May be a good for science , research , journalism , medical and health occupations . Artistic . People who enjoy creating or designing things using art , music , writing , or drama to express themselves and communicate or perform . Often a good to choose occupations in the creative arts , writing , photography , design . Social . People who like people and are concerned for others and welfare and like working with others to teach , train , inform , help , treat , heal , cure , and serve . May be most comfortable in helping or human service professions , like teaching , social work , or counseling . Enterprising . People who are adventurous and like meeting , leading , and influencing others like planning and strategizing . Are drawn to business , management , supervisory positions , sales , or politics . Conventional . People who enjoy working indoors at tasks that involve organizing , following procedures , working 296 Vocational Development
with data or numbers , planning work and events . May be good for like business , librarian , worker , or computer operator . If you would like to see where you fall on these personality types , you can take assessment on the Bureau of Labor webpage explore ip Occupational decisions are based , not only on people interests and values , but also on other factors in their lives , such as circumstances , familial , and current educational and job opportunities . For example , during the Great Recession that started in 2008 , many people who could not work decided to attend to college and gained additional skills and . During that same time period , presumably based on economic uncertainty , more undergraduates opted to major in occupational sectors showing job growth and higher salaries , like business , the natural sciences , computing , and engineering ( Department of Education , 2012 ) Familial Families pave the way for their children vocational choices , starting before they are born . One of the most important of a young adults eventual occupation is the SES of their family of origin . Children from high SES backgrounds have more and better educational opportunities , in the form of higher quality schools with better academic programs , more enrichment activities ( extracurricular activities , clubs , and summer camps focused on topics like science , engineering , computer programming , and robotics ) greater access to better quality higher education , and better networks of social capital for seeking internships and jobs ( Levine , 2005 ) Parents with more wealth and education ( and especially mothers with more education ) confer a host of advantages on their offspring and these eventually translate into better academic performance at all levels of school , which is one of the strongest of occupational attainment . Families also vocational processes indirectly by the status and range of occupations they model , as well as directly by trying to persuade youth to consider or follow career pathways . High SES families also buffer their offspring when young people chose sporadic employment or low paying professions ( artist , musician ) by subsidizing their career choices . Parenting style . Research on parenting styles suggests that authoritative parenting provides the greatest support for constructive vocational since it both encourages youth to discover their own interests and passions , while also helping them develop tools like and achievement that will enable them to make progress along their chosen route . Authoritarian parenting , with its rigid demands for obedience and compliance , may interfere with exploratory efforts and lead to premature foreclosure on options . These handed tactics may sometimes lead to higher occupational attainment ( as seen , for example , in some or Jewish families ) but they can also undermine some of the development fostered by career choices that are a better match for individuals interests and proclivities . In other cases , family obligations may lead students to drop out in order to help with support ( as seen in some youth , who as a group have the lowest educational attainment but the highest rates of employment of all groups ) Permissive parenting may interfere with young people capacities to come to terms with the realities of the job market and delay decision making , whereas neglectful parenting robs youth of the support and scaffolding they need for constructive exploration and decision making , and so may contribute to unemployment or sporadic employment in low skilled jobs . Upward social mobility . In general , children and youth tend to prefer the kinds of occupations that they see in their parents and neighbors . As a result , youth from high SES families are more likely to prefer and pursue white color professions , such as medicine , law , or academia , whereas those from low SES families are more likely to favor and go into blue collar careers , some of which are high skill ( like plumbing , electrician , preschool teacher ) and some of which are low skill ( food service worker , cashier , delivery driver ) but all of which have a lower pay scale . The correspondence in occupations between parents and children is only partly a function of familiarity , persuasion , and Vocational Development 297
similarity in personality and interests ( Ellis , 2003 Schoon Parsons , 2002 ) It also the extent to which high and low SES families can launch children into higher status careers . All parents can foster high educational and occupational aspirations . Over and above the effects of SES , career attainment is predicted by parental guidance , high demands and expectations to succeed in school , and pressure toward jobs ( Bryant , Reynolds , 2006 Stringer , 2010 ) In a process called upward mobility , a young person can break out of the SES level of their family of origin , as seen for example , in the great success of many generation college students . Based on multiple societal trends , however , upward social mobility has gotten increasingly over the last several decades . Societal and Cultural Factors Many of the factors that are typically described as family influences on vocational decision making also powerful societal and political forces that shape young peoples educational and occupational opportunities . For example , trends in politics and business have reduced employment opportunities in the blue collar sector over the last several decades . These trends include the loss of manufacturing jobs , increases in automation , the growth of the information economy , the stagnation of the minimum wage , weakening or breaking up unions , economic and patterns of unemployment or underemployment that disproportionately disadvantage low SES and minority workers . Alternative societal decisions would make it much easier for young people to meaningful work and to be able to support themselves and their families on their wages . Successful strategies employed in other countries include policies designed to promote job growth , reduce income inequality , provide access to free higher education and job ( re ) training , maintaining the minimum wage at a level that keeps up with the cost of living , subsidizing child care , and making sure that healthcare is free or affordable and not tied to jobs . These decisions the vocational options ( and quality of life ) open , not only to young people entering the job market , but to workers all across the lifespan . Teacher Support and Encouragement Many youth who go on to careers that require prolonged education or training report that their vocational decision making process was by their teachers . During high school or college , their teachers took a special interest , and mentored or otherwise encouraged them to continue along certain occupational pathways ( Bright et , 2005 , 1997 ) High school students that go on to college tend to have more positive connections with teachers than students , and such close relationships promote higher career aspirations , especially in young women ( et , 2002 ) Such connections are especially important to generation students and students from underrepresented minority backgrounds who may not have many role models in their immediate family . Gender Stereotypes Gender disparities in occupational status and income have steadily decreased over the last several decades , as more and more women enter the labor force . attitudes are changing , and girls show greater interest in dominated professions , but progress has been slow . Although girls typically outperform boys academically all throughout school , and graduate from college at higher rates ( both overall and within every group ) they reach high school less in their academic competence , more likely to underestimate their achievement , and less interested in careers in mathematics , natural science , and engineering ( Ceci Williams , 2010 Parker et , 2012 ) During college , many women career aspirations further decline as they worry about their capacity to succeed in challenging classes and careers in science and mathematics , and wonder whether they will be able to combine a powered career with responsibilities of children and families ( Jacobs , 2008 et , 2006 ) Women are still concentrated in a subset of college majors and in and occupations ( US Census Bureau , 2019 ) Untangling this problem requires a solution . First , high school and college teachers must 298 Vocational Development
be sensitized to the roadblocks , discrimination , and prejudice girls and women face based on entrenched myths about their natural aptitude for male dominated subjects and professions . To reverse internalized biases , girls and women would also from some support in reworking these narratives to counteract their own concerns and insecurities . Many programs are now in place to increase the participation and success of women and ethnic minority students in STEM . These programs typically include active recruitment , mentoring , creation of supportive peer cohorts , and guided research experiences , and have been somewhat successful at increasing graduation rates for some of students . A second correction to gender disparities in income involves improving the status and salary levels for traditionally female occupations , like childcare , teaching , social work , and nursing . These occupations are of great to society , yet workers are not paid in ways commensurate with this value . Society needs to reexamine its priorities , when someone who trades in markets where nothing of value is produced are paid hundreds of times more than people whose dedication keeps premature infants alive or supports the frail elderly during their twilight years . Figure . Median I Men I Women ne salary workers , by gender , race , and ethnicity , 2009 . Based on data from US . Bureau of Labor Statistics . Total White Black or Asian 3952 Hispanic or Latino ethnicity 250 500 750 I Compared to women , men have changed little in their occupational choices few pursue nontraditional careers , such as nursing or teaching elementary school . Those who do are less , more liberal in their social attitudes , less concerned with social status , and more interested in working with and helping people ( Borders , 2006 , Taylor , 2005 ) Men in careers generally report high satisfaction in their work , but also note that they have to deal with biases and stigma about their decisions to pursue occupations , especially from other men . Youth According to the US Census , the highest level of education completed by of the labor force ( population age 25 and older ) is high school , whereas four years of college . Rates vary by According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics , the share of the labor force with at least a high school diploma was more than 90 each for Whites , Blacks , and Asians but 76 for Hispanics . And 63 of Asians in the labor force had a bachelor degree and higher , compared with 41 of Whites , 31 of Blacks , and 21 of Hispanics . As a result , approximately of young people who graduate high school do not go to college . This decision has a big impact on their career options . Most of them it to secure a job other than the ones they held during Vocational Development 299
high school . Although high school graduates are more likely to employment than young people who dropped out of high school , they have fewer occupational opportunities than their counterparts from earlier cohorts . During times of recession , those prospects worsen as positions that become available are taken by ( sometimes ) college graduates . Before the recession created by the pandemic in 2020 , unemployment rates for who dropped out of high school were about 43 for those who graduated high school about 26 , and for those who graduated college about 13 ( National Center for Education Statistics ) The discouraging prospects of bound youth are also a product of societal decisions about the educational and occupational tracks available in US schools . In contrast , Germany , Austria , Denmark , Switzerland , and several Eastern European countries have intentionally created national apprenticeship programs that facilitate the transition from high school to work . For example , about of German students do not attend college preparatory high schools . Instead , starting in middle school , they head down a vocational track toward one of the most successful study apprenticeship programs for entering business and industry in the world . At age 15 or 16 , during the last two years of compulsory education , they begin a program that combines vocational courses with an apprenticeship that is jointly sponsored by educators and employers ( 2007 ) Students who the program and pass a qualifying exam are as skilled workers and enter occupations whose wages are set and protected by unions . Industries provide funding for these apprenticeship programs because it is clear that they provide a dependable supply of motivated and skilled workers ( 2002 ) In addition , such programs encourage students to stay in school and allow young people to begin productive work lives directly after high school . Providing a pipeline between the worlds of school and work not only youth themselves , but also provides value to the rest of society by contributing to national economic growth . To date , only programs are attempting to bridge this gap in the US , but larger scale national programs are needed . Vocational development is an important task for young adults , but the process of occupational goals and launching a career are challenging . Young people know that their occupational choices can have lifelong consequences . Jobs are sources of income and so living conditions and recreational options they are how people spend much of their time and so their waking hours workplaces can become extended neighborhoods or families and they can provide a source of meaning and identity . No wonder young people may feel that the stakes are high . To constructively negotiate this task , they need the support of family , schools , workplaces , and the larger society . Supplemental Materials This Ted Talk inspires young folks to get involved with work , through the story of one young woman work against child soldiers . a One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them here ?
This video details university students resistance to Hitler Nazi Germany . 300 I Vocational Development One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
This article illustrates a Participatory Action Research initiative that examines the experiences of students with disabilities as they transition to college . 2011 ) Hitting the Reset Button on Education Student Reports on Going to College . Career Development for Exceptional Individuals 34 ( 0885728811399277 This book the concept of White Immunity , as it relates to structural racism and the context of college campuses . utilizes interviews with White , male students to bring forth the myth of higher education . 2019 ) White guys on campus Racism white immunity and the of higher education . This Ted Talk discusses how to create an inclusive college classroom that supports students of color and reduces imposter syndrome . a One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
This article discusses college campus racial climate and how play a key role . Smith ( 2009 ) Critical race racial campus racial climate for Latina undergraduates . Harvard Educational Review 79 . References Bright , Pryor , Earl , 2005 ) The role of social context and serendipitous events in career decision making . International journal for educational and vocational guidance , Bryant , Reynolds , 2006 ) Parenting in relation to child and adolescent vocational development . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 69 ( Ceci , Williams , 2009 ) The mathematics of sex How biology and society conspire to limit talented women and girls . New York Oxford University Press . Jacobs , 2008 ) occupational choices The impact of Vocational Development 301
parents beliefs and expectations . In Watt . Eccles ( Gender and occupational outcomes Longitudinal assessments of individual , social , and cultural . Washington American Psychological Association . 2007 ) Making schools practical Practice and their function in the vocational school system in Germany . Training , 49 , Di Borders , A . 2006 ) Men in traditional and nontraditional careers Gender role attitudes , gender role conflict , and job satisfaction . The Career Development Quarterly , 54 ( Ellis , 2003 ) Genetics and preferences . Evidence from adoptive and families . Personality and Individual Differences , 35 ( 2005 ) Applying theory of circumscription and compromise in career guidance and counseling . Career development and counseling Putting theory and research to work , Wiley . Holland , 1959 ) A theory of vocational choice . Journal of Counseling Psychology , Holland , 1985 ) Making vocational choices A theory of vocational personalities and work environments . Cliffs , Holland , 1997 ) Making vocational choices A theory of vocational personalities and work environments ( Odessa , Psychological Assessment Resources . 1990 ) Sociological perspectives on career choice and attainment . In Brown , Brooks . Associates ( Career choice and development ( San Francisco . Howard , Walsh , 2010 ) Conceptions of career choice and attainment Developmental levels in how children think about careers . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 76 ( Taylor , 2005 ) Relationally oriented masculinity , gender nontraditional interests , and occupational traditionality of employed men . Journal of Career Development , 32 ( Levine , 2005 ) Following in their parents footsteps How characteristics of parental work predict adolescents interest in parents working jobs . In Schneider ( Being together , working apart families and the balance ( New York Cambridge University Press . 2002 ) The transition from school to work . In Mortimer Larson ( The changing adolescent experience Societal trends and the transition to adulthood , New York Cambridge University Press . 2010 ) The development , evolution , and status of Holland theory of vocational personalities and future directions for counseling psychology . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 57 ( 2010 ) The development , evolution , and status of Holland theory of vocational personalities and future directions for counseling psychology . Journal of counseling psychology , 57 ( 11 . Parker , Schoon , Eccles , 2012 ) Achievement , agency , gender , and socioeconomic background as of choices A study . Developmental psychology , 48 ( 1997 ) women Career development patterns . In Farmer ( Ed . Diversity and womens career development ( Thousand Oaks , CA Sage . Schoon , Parsons , 2002 ) Teenage aspirations for future careers and occupational outcomes . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 60 ( 302 Vocational Development
Spokane , 2005 ) Holland theory of vocational personalities in work environments . In Brown Lent ( Career development and counseling Putting theory and research to work , Wiley . Stringer , 2011 ) Career preparation A longitudinal , examination . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 79 ( Super , 1990 ) A , approach to career development . In Brown . Brooks , The management series and The social and behavioral science series . Career choice and development Applying contemporary theories to practice ( Super , 1994 ) A life span , life space perspective on convergence . In Lent ( Convergence in career development theories Implications for science and practice ( Books . Census Bureau . 2019 ) Educational attainment in the United States 2018 . Retrieved from Department of Education ( 2012 ) Digest of education statistics 2011 . Washington , Government printing . Retrieved from , Walsh , Brown , Ward , 2001 ) Career counseling for African Americans . Battle , Keller , Eccles , 2002 ) Sex differences in motivation , career aspiration , and career choice Implications for cognitive development . In De ( Biology , society , and behavior The development of sex differences in cognition ( Eccles , 20076 . Development of achievement motivation . In ( Ed . Handbook of child psychology Vol . Social , emotional , and personality development ( Wiley . Wilson , Wu , 1995 ) Race and unemployment Labor Market experiences of black and white men , Work and Occupations , 22 , Flores , Navarro , 2005 ) Career Development in Context Research with People of Color . In Brown Lent ( Career development and counseling Putting theory and research to work ( John Wiley Sons , OER Attribution Lifespan Development A Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a Video Being and making an impact by TED is licensed The secret student resistance to hitler by TED is licensed How students of color confront imposter by TED is licensed Vocational Development I 303
Media US Sap sex is licensed license 304 Vocational Development Love and Relationships Developmental Task of Early Adulthood Intimacy . Isolation ( 1950 , 1968 ) sixth stage of psychosocial development focuses on establishing intimate relationships or risking social isolation . Intimate relationships are more if one is still struggling with identity . Achieving a sense of identity is a process , as there are periods of identity crisis and stability . Once a sense of identity is established , young adults focus often turns to intimate relationships . The word intimacy is often used to describe romantic or sexual relationships , but it also refers to the closeness , caring , and personal disclosure that can be found in many other types of relationships as and , of course , it is possible to have sexual relationships that do not include psychological intimacy or closeness . The need for intimacy can be met in many ways , including with friendships , familial relationships , and romantic relationships . Friendships Friendships provide one common way to achieve a sense of intimacy . In early adulthood , healthy friendships continue to be important for development , providing not only a source of support in tough times , but also improved and general ( Berk , 2014 Collins , 2006 et al , 2006 ) As is the case in adolescence , friendships rich in intimacy , mutuality , and closeness are especially important for development ( Roberto , 2012 ) Studies suggest that women friendships are characterized by somewhat more emotional intimacy in general , whereas friendships tend to grow more emotionally close and include more personal disclosures the longer the friendships last ( Berk , 2014 Sherman , de , 2000 ) Friendships can tend to take a backseat when adults enter marriages and partnerships , with more between romantic partners rather than between friends outside the partnership . At the same time , maintaining healthy friendships after marriage and the birth of children remains important for ( Berk , 2014 , 2007 ) Workplace friendships . Friendships often take root in the workplace , since people spend as much , or more , time at work as they do with their family and friends ( 2003 ) Often , it is through these relationships that people receive mentoring and obtain social support and resources , but they can also experience and the potential for misinterpretation when sexual attraction is an issue . Indeed , and ( 2006 ) found that many workers reported that friendships grew out of collaborative work projects , and these friendships made their days more pleasant . In addition to those , and ( 1995 ) found that people who work in an environment where friendships can develop and be maintained are more likely to report higher levels of job satisfaction , job involvement , and organizational commitment , and they are more likely to remain in that job . Similarly , a poll revealed that employees who had close friends at work were almost 50 more with their jobs than those who did not ( Armour , 2007 ) Internet friendships . What does the Internet have on friendships ?
It is not surprising that people use the Internet with the goal of meeting and making new friends ( 2008 , 2008 ) Researchers have wondered whether virtual relationships ( compared to ones conducted ) reduce the authenticity of relationships , or whether the Internet actually allows people to develop deep , meaningful connections . Interestingly , research has demonstrated that virtual relationships are often as intimate as relationships in fact , Bargh and colleagues found that online relationships are sometimes more intimate ( Bargh et , 2002 ) This can be especially true for those individuals who are socially anxious and individuals are more likely to turn to the Internet to new Love and Relationships 305
and meaningful relationships ( Green , 2002 ) et al . 2002 ) suggest that for people who have a hard time meeting and maintaining relationships , due to shyness , anxiety , or lack of social skills , the Internet provides a safe , nonthreatening place to develop and maintain relationships . Similarly , 2008 ) found that for autistic individuals , the Internet facilitates communication and relationship development with others , which would be more in , leading to the conclusion that Internet communication can be empowering for those who feel when communicating face to face . Relationships with Parents and Siblings In early adulthood the relationship transitions by necessity toward a relationship between two adults . This involves a reappraisal of the relationship by both parents and young adults . One of the biggest challenges for parents , especially during emerging adulthood , is coming to terms with the adult status of their children . Aquilino ( 2006 ) suggests that parents who are reluctant or unable to do so may hinder young adults identity development . This problem becomes more pronounced when young adults still reside with their parents and are dependent on them . 2004 ) reported that leaving home often helped promote psychological growth and independence in early adulthood . Sibling relationships are one of the bonds in peoples lives . Yet , there is little research on the nature of sibling relationships in adulthood ( Aquilino , 2006 ) What is known is that the nature of these relationships change , as adults have a choice as to whether they will create or maintain a close bond and continue to be a part of the life of a sibling . Siblings must make the same reappraisal of each other as adults , as parents have to with their adult children . Research has shown a decline in the frequency of interactions between siblings during early adulthood , as presumably peers , romantic relationships , and children become more central to the lives of young adults . Aquilino ( 2006 ) suggests that the task in early adulthood may be to maintain enough of a bond so that there will be a foundation for this relationship in later life . Those who are successful can often move away from the sibling of childhood , toward a more egalitarian relationship between two adults . Siblings that were close to each other in childhood are typically close in adulthood ( Dunn , 1984 , 2007 ) and in fact , it is unusual for siblings to develop closeness for the time in adulthood . Overall , the majority of adult sibling relationships are close ( 2009 ) Beginning Close Romantic Relationships Factors Attraction Because most of us enter into a close romantic relationship at some point , it is useful to know what psychologists have learned about the principles of liking and loving . A major interest of psychologists is the study of interpersonal attraction , or what makes people like , and even love , each other . Proximity . One important factor in initiating relationships is proximity , or the extent to which people are physically near us . Research has found that we are more likely to develop friendships with people who are nearby , for instance , those who live in the same dorm that we do , and even with people who just happen to sit nearer to us in our classes ( Back , 2008 ) Proximity has its effect on liking through the principle of mere exposure , which is the tendency to prefer stimuli ( including , but not limited to people ) that we have seen more frequently . The effect of mere exposure is powerful and occurs in a wide variety of situations . Infants tend to smile at a photograph of someone they have seen before more than they smile at a photograph of someone they are seeing for the time ( Lewis , 1981 ) and people prefer reversed images of their own faces over their normal ( nonreversed ) face , whereas their friends prefer their 306 I Love and Relationships
normal face over the reversed one ( Mita , Knight , 1977 ) This is expected on the basis of mere exposure , since people see their own faces primarily in mirrors , and thus are exposed to the reversed face more often . Mere exposure may well have an evolutionary basis . We have an initial fear of the unknown , but as things become familiar , they seem more similar and safer , and thus produce more positive affect and seem less threatening and dangerous ( Allen , 2001 , Travers , Berry , 2005 ) When the stimuli are people , there may well be an added effect . Familiar people become more likely to be seen as part of the rather than the , and this may lead us to like them more . and her colleagues found that we like people of our own race in part because they are perceived as similar to us ( Lee , 2007 ) Similarity . An important determinant of attraction is a perceived similarity in values and beliefs between the partners ( Davis , 2001 ) Similarity is important for relationships because it is more convenient if both partners like the same activities and because similarity supports one values . We can feel better about ourselves and our choice of activities if we see that our partner also enjoys doing the same things that we do . Having others like and believe in the same things we do makes us feel validated in our beliefs . This is referred to as consensual validation and is an important aspect of why we are attracted to others . Liking is also enhanced by , the tendency to communicate frequently , without fear of reprisal , and in an accepting and empathetic manner . Friends are friends because we can talk to them openly about our needs and goals and because they listen and respond to our needs ( Reis Aron , 2008 ) must be balanced . If we open up about our concerns that are important to us , we expect our partner to do the same in return . If the is not reciprocal , the relationship may not last . Love Philosophers and poets have wondered about the nature of love for centuries , and psychologists have also theorized about , components , and kinds of love . 1988 ) suggests that there are three main components of love Passion , intimacy , and commitment ( see , below ) Love relationships vary depending on the presence or absence of each of these components . Passion refers to the intense , physical attraction partners feel toward one another . Intimacy involves the ability the share feelings , psychological closeness and personal thoughts with the other . Commitment is the conscious decision to stay together Passion can be found in the early stages of a relationship , but intimacy takes time to develop because it is based on knowledge of and sharing with the partner . Once intimacy has been established , partners may resolve to stay in the relationship . Although many would agree that all three components are important to a relationship , many love relationships do not consist of all three . Let look at other possibilities . Love and Relationships 307
Liking Intimacy Companionate Intimacy Commitment Romantic Love Passion Intimacy consummate Love Intimacy Passion commitment Infatuation Fatuous Love Empty Love Passion Passion Commitment Commitment Figure . Theory Liking . In this kind of relationship , intimacy or knowledge of the other and a sense of closeness is present . Passion and commitment , however , are not . Partners feel free to be themselves and disclose personal information . They may feel that the other person knows them well and can be honest with them and let them know if they think the person is wrong . These partners are friends . However , being told that your partner thinks of you as a friend can be a painful blow if you are attracted to them and seeking a romantic involvement . Infatuation . Perhaps , this is version of love at sight or what adolescents would call a Infatuation consists of an immediate , intense physical attraction to someone . A person who is infatuated it hard to think of anything but the other person . Brief encounters are played over and over in ones head it may be to eat and there may be a rather constant state of arousal . Infatuation is typically , however , lasting perhaps only a matter of months or as long as a year or so . It tends to be based on physical attraction and an image of what one thinks the other is all about . Fatuous Love . However , some people who have a strong physical attraction push for commitment early in the relationship . Passion and commitment are aspects of fatuous love . There is no intimacy and the commitment is premature . Partners rarely talk seriously or share their ideas . They focus on their intense physical attraction and yet one , or both , is also talking of making a lasting commitment . Sometimes insistence on premature commitment follows from a sense of insecurity and a desire to make sure the partner is locked into the relationship . Empty Love . This type of love may be found later in a relationship or in a relationship that was formed to meet needs other than intimacy or passion , including needs , assistance , or status . Here the partners are committed to staying in the relationship for the children , because of a religious conviction , or because there are no alternatives . However , they do not share ideas or feelings with each other and have no ( or no longer any ) physical attraction for one another . Romantic Love . Intimacy and passion are components of romantic love , but there is no commitment . The partners spend much time with one another and enjoy their closeness , but have not made plans to continue . This may be true 308 Love and Relationships
because they are not in a position to make such commitments or because they are looking for passion and closeness and are afraid it will die out if they commit to one another and start to focus on other kinds of obligations . Companionate Love . Intimacy and commitment are the hallmarks of companionate love . Partners love and respect another and they are committed to staying together . However , their physical attraction may have never been strong or may have just died out over time . Nevertheless , partners are good friends and committed to one another . Consummate Love . Intimacy , passion , and commitment are present in consummate love . This is often perceived by western cultures as the ideal type of love . The couple shares passion the spark has not died , and the closeness is there . They feel like best friends , as well as lovers , and they are committed to staying together . Attachment in Young Adulthood and Shaver ( 1987 ) described the attachment styles of adults , using the same three general categories proposed by research on young children secure , and . and Shaver developed three brief paragraphs describing the three adult attachment styles . Adults were then asked to think about romantic relationships they were in and select the paragraph that best described the way they felt , thought , and behaved in these relationships ( See table , below ) Table Attachment in Young Adulthood Which of the following best describes you in your romantic relationships ?
Attachment Style Response I it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having Secure them depend on me . I dont often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me . I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others I it to trust them completely , to allow myself to depend on them . I am nervous when anyone gets too close , and often , love partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being . I that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like . I often worry that my partner Resistant really love me or wo stay with me . I want to merge completely with another person , and this sometimes scares people away . Adapted from Lally , 2019 and Shaver , 1987 ( 1990 ) challenged the categorical view of attachment in adults and suggested that adult attachment was best described as varying along two dimensions attachment and avoidance . anxiety refers to the extent to which an adult worries about whether their partner really loves them . Those who score high on this dimension fear that their partner will reject or abandon them ( Hudson , 2015 ) avoidance refers to whether an adult can open up to others , and whether they trust and feel they can depend on others . Those who score high on avoidance are uncomfortable with opening up and may fear that such dependency may limit their sense of autonomy ( et , 2015 ) According to ( 1990 ) this would yield four possible attachment styles in adults secure , dismissing , preoccupied , and ( see Figure , below . Love and Relationships 309
High Avoidance Dismissing Fearful Low Anxiety High Anxiety Secure Preoccupied Low Avoidance Figure . Model with the of Attachment ( et , 355 ) Securely attached adults score lower on both dimensions . They are comfortable trusting their partners and do not worry excessively about their partner love for them . Adults with a dismissing style score low on anxiety , but higher on avoidance . Such adults dismiss the importance of relationships . They trust themselves , but do not trust others , thus do not share their dreams , goals , and fears with others . They do not depend on other people and feel uncomfortable when they have to do so . Those with a preoccupied attachment are low in avoidance , but high in anxiety . Such adults are often prone to jealousy and worry that their partner does not love them as much as they need to be loved . Adults whose attachment style is score high on both avoidance and anxiety . These adults want close relationships , but do not feel comfortable getting emotionally close to others . They have trust issues with others and often do not trust their own social skills in maintaining relationships . Research on attachment in adulthood has found that with insecure attachments report lower satisfaction in their relationships ( Campbell , 2008 Holland , 2012 ) Those high in anxiety report more daily in their relationships ( Campbell , Simpson , 2005 ) Those with attachment exhibit less support to their partners ( Simpson , 2002 ) Young adults show greater anxiety than do or older adults ( 2013 ) Some studies report that young adults show more avoidance ( Murdock , 2010 ) while other studies that adults show higher avoidance than younger or older adults ( et , 2013 ) 310 Love and Relationships
Young adults with more secure and positive relationships with their parents make the transition to adulthood more easily than do those with more insecure attachments ( 2013 ) Young adults with secure attachments and authoritative parents were less likely to be depressed than those with authoritarian or permissive parents or who experienced an or ambivalent attachment ( 2017 ) Do people with certain attachment styles attract those with similar styles ?
When people are asked what kinds of psychological or behavioral qualities they are seeking in a romantic partner , a large majority of people indicate that they are seeking someone who is kind , caring , trustworthy , and understanding , that is , who has the kinds of attributes that characterize a secure caregiver ( Davis , 1998 ) However , we know that people do not always end up with others who meet their ideals . Are secure people more likely to end up with secure partners , and , vice versa , are insecure people more likely to end up with insecure partners ?
The majority of the research that has been conducted to date suggests that the answer is , Fischer , Wright , and DeBord ( 1996 ) studied the attachment patterns of more than 83 heterosexual couples and found that , if the man was relatively secure , the woman was also likely to be secure . One important question is whether these exist because ( a ) secure people are more likely to be attracted to other secure people , secure people are likely to create security in their partners over time , or ( some combination of these possibilities . Existing empirical research strongly supports the alternative . For example , when people have the opportunity to interact with individuals who vary in security in a context , they express a greater interest in those who are higher in security than those who are more insecure ( McClure , Baldwin , 2010 ) It also is likely that secure people , who have the characteristics that many consider make an ideal partner , have their choice of partners so they select ones who are also closer to the ideal , namely , secure people . However , there is also some evidence that people attachment styles mutually shape one another in close relationships . For example , in a longitudinal study , Hudson , and ( 2012 ) found that , if one person in a relationship experienced a change in security , his or her partner was likely to experience a change in the same direction . Do early experiences as children shape adult attachment ?
The majority of research on this issue is retrospective that is , it relies on adults reports of what they recall about their childhood experiences . This kind of work suggests that secure adults are more likely to describe their early childhood experiences with their parents as being supportive , loving , and kind ( Shaver , 1987 ) A number of longitudinal studies are emerging that demonstrate prospective associations between early attachment experiences and adult attachment styles interpersonal functioning in adulthood . For example , Owen , and Holland ( 2013 ) found in a sample of more than 700 individuals studied from infancy to adulthood that maternal sensitivity across development prospectively predicted security at age 18 . Simpson , Collins , Tran , and ( 2007 ) found that attachment security , assessed in infancy in the strange situation , predicted peer competence in grades one to three , which , in turn , predicted the quality of friendship relationships at age 16 , which , in turn , predicted the expression of positive and negative emotions in their adult romantic relationships at ages 20 to 23 . You can see how positive relationships with both parents and peers contribute to higher quality relationships with romantic partners . It is easy to come away from such with the mistaken assumption that early experiences determine later outcomes . To be clear , attachment theorists assume that the connection between early experiences and subsequent outcomes is probabilistic , not deterministic . Having supportive and responsive experiences with caregivers early in life is assumed to set the stage for positive social development , but that does not mean that attachment patterns are set in stone . In short , even if an individual has far from optimal experiences in early life , attachment theory suggests that it is possible for that individual to develop adult relationships . People are able to rework the effects of their early experiences through a number of corrective pathways , including relationships with siblings , other family members , teachers , and close friends . Security is best viewed as an accumulation of a person attachment history rather Love and Relationships 311
than a of his or her early experiences alone . Those early experiences are considered important , not because they determine a persons fate , but because they provide the foundation for subsequent experiences . Relationships 101 of Marital Harmony Advice on how to improve one marriage is centuries old . One of experts on marital communication is John . 1999 ) differs from many marriage counselors in his belief that having a good marriage does not depend on compatibility . Rather , he argues that the way partners communicate with one another is crucial . At the University of Washington in Seattle , has conducted some of the most thorough and interesting studies of marital relationships . His research team measured the physiological responses of thousands of couples as they discuss issues of disagreement . Fidgeting in ones chair , leaning closer to or further away from the partner while speaking , and increases in respiration and heart rate are all recorded and analyzed along with videotaped recordings of the partners exchanges . is trying to identify aspects of communication patterns that can accurately predict whether or not a couple will stay together . In marriages destined to fail , partners engage in the marriage killers Contempt , criticism , defensiveness , and . Each of these undermines the caring and respect that healthy marriages require . To some extent , all partnerships include some of these behaviors occasionally , but when these behaviors become the norm , they can signal that the end of the relationships is near for that reason , they are known as Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse . Contempt , which it entails mocking or derision and communicates the other partner is inferior , is seen of the worst of the four because it is the strongest predictor of divorce . Click here for a suggestions on diffusing your own contempt . and ( 2000 ) researched the perceptions newlyweds had about their partner and marriage . The Oral History Interview used in this study , which looks at eight variables in marriage including , expressiveness , negativity , disappointment , and three aspects of conflict resolution ( chaos , volatility , glorifying the struggle ) was able to predict the stability of the marriage ( divorce ) with 87 accuracy at the four to six and 81 accuracy at the seven to nine . 1999 ) developed workshops for couples to strengthen their marriages based on the results of the Oral History Interview . Interventions include increasing positive regard for each other , strengthening their friendship , and improving communication and resolution patterns . Accumulated Positive Deposits to the Emotional Bank When there is a positive balance of relationship deposits this can help the overall relationship in times of . For instance , some research indicates that a level of enthusiasm in everyday marital interactions was related to a wife affection in the midst of ( Driver , 2004 ) showing that being friendly and making deposits can change the nature of conflict . and ( 1992 ) also found that couples rated as having more pleasant interactions , compared with couples with less pleasant interactions , reported higher marital satisfaction , less severe marital problems , better physical health , and less risk for divorce . Finally , and ( 2006 ) showed that the intensity of with a spouse predicted marital satisfaction , unless there was a record of positive partner interactions , in which case the did not matter as much . Again , it seems as though having a positive balance through prior positive deposits helps to keep relationships strong even in the midst of . Many additional techniques for maintaining healthy relationships , such as building love maps , turning towards our partners bids for affection and attention , managing conflict , and changing how we interpret can be found on the Institute Website . 312 Love and Relationships
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, Lee , 2007 ) The contribution of face familiarity to in group favoritism and stereotyping . Social Cognition , 25 ( OER Attribution Lifespan Development A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a Love Friendship and Social Support by and Cynthia Mohr is licensed under a Creative Commons International License . Additional written material by Ellen Skinner Heather , Portland State University is licensed under Media Private Theory of , is licensed under a Public Domain license Private four category model is licensed under a Attribution ) license 316 Love and Relationships
Family Life Cycle Learning Objectives Family Life Cycle Identify the overarching individual objective or task of the family life cycle . Describe the phases of the family life cycle . Describe new parenthood . Identify the factors that affect adjustment to new parenthood . Explain changes in marital satisfaction across the family life cycle . Describe a common change in marital satisfaction that accompanies the empty nest . Describe changes in gender roles across the family life cycle . Describe the role of grandparents in the family life cycle . Describe the changes in family relationships during middle adulthood . Describe changes and concerns in relationships with aging parents . The family life cycle is conventionally represented as a sequence of stages typical of many adults , moving from independence from the family of origin , through forming one own family unit , raising kids , and becoming grandparents . Of course , many people do not follow the traditional sequence or pattern shown in this conventional family life cycle . It can be useful to broaden our of family life so it includes all varieties of domestic arrangement . If we do , family encompasses most of our activities in adult life other than work , friendships , and . For many people , close friends are considered part of family . We know that some families involve intimate relationships and children , but there are also other important facets . Family life revolves around the home . An important aspect of life for every adult is where they live and who lives with them . Another aspect is , cleaning , and maintenance . Who does what ?
Family life also involves doing things together and enjoying a sense of community . For most adults in most cultures , the primary organizing factor in their lives is family , hence , the phrase family Much of development during adulthood revolves around where a person themselves in the family life cycle , in terms of moving through a sequence of a partner , forming a household family unit , and having or not having and raising children . Family life cycle patterns differ across cultures and , and shift with historical time . The overarching objective or task of the family life cycle is to create the life that fits and works for the individual , that is consistent with their personal characteristics and preferences , the life they want . Successful navigation of the family life cycle means a life that is personally meaningful and for you and that works for the rest of your family ( however constituted ) as well . Family Life Cycle 317
Single Adulthood Singlehood . Being single is the most common lifestyle for people in their early , and there has been an increase in the number of adults choosing to remain single . In 1960 , only about in 10 adults age 25 or older had never been married , in 2012 that had risen to in ( Wang Parker , 2014 ) While just over half ( 53 ) of unmarried adults say they would eventually like to get married , 32 percent are not sure , and 13 percent do not want to get married . It is projected that by the time people who are currently young adults reach their and , almost 25 of them may never have married . The US . is not the only country to see a rise in the number of single adults . The table below lists some of the reasons young adults give for staying Single . In addition , adults are marrying later in life , cohabitating , and raising children outside of marriage in greater numbers than in previous generations . Young adults also have other priorities , such as education , and establishing their careers . Table Reasons for Staying Single Have not met the right person 30 Do not have stability 27 Not ready to settle down 22 Too young to marry 22 adapted from , 2019 Historical trends in lifestyles and priorities may be reflected in changes in attitudes about the importance of marriage . In a recent Pew Research survey of Americans , respondents were asked to indicate which of the following statements came closer to their own views Society is better off if people make marriage and having children a priority . Society is just as well off if people have priorities other than marriage and children . Slightly more adults endorsed the second statement ( 50 ) than those who chose the ( 46 ) with the remainder either selecting neither , both equally , or not responding ( Wang Parker , 2014 ) Young adults age were more likely to endorse this second view than adults age 30 to 49 67 and 53 respectively . In contrast , those age 50 or older were more likely to endorse the statement ( 53 ) Committed Relationships and Marriage Cohabitation . In American society , as well as in a number of other cultures , cohabitation has become increasingly commonplace ( 2018 ) For many emerging adults , age , cohabitation has become more common than marriage , as can be seen in Figure below . While marriage is still a more common living arrangement for those , cohabitation has increased , while marriage has declined , as can be seen in Figure . also found that cohabitation varies by socioeconomic status . Those who are married tend to have higher levels of education , and thus higher earnings , or earning potential . 318 Family Life Cycle
A higher proportion of to live with an unmarried partner than a spouse . Arrangements of Young Adults Ages 18 to 24 Percent Living with spouse Living with partner . 2000 Source US . Census Bureau . Population survey . social and Economic . 1969 to 2018 . Figure . Cohabitation has become more common among to . Arrangements of Young Adults Ages 25 to 34 with spouse source census Bureau . current Population Savoy . social and Economic supplements . use no 2018 . Figure . Copen , Daniels , and ( 2013 ) found that from 1995 to 2010 the median length of the cohabitation relationship had Family Life Cycle 319
increased regardless of whether the relationship resulted in marriage , remained intact , or had since dissolved . In 1995 the median length of the cohabitation relationship was 13 months , whereas by 2010 it was 22 months . Cohabitation for all groups , except for Asian women increased between 1995 and 2010 ( see Table 84 ) Forty percent of the transitioned into marriage within three years , 32 were still cohabitating , and 27 of cohabitating relationships had dissolved within the three years . Table Percentage ofwomen by ethnicity whose first union was cohabitation 1995 Hispanic 30 47 White 35 49 Black 35 49 Asian 22 22 adapted from , 2019 Based on data from Copen et , 2013 Three explanations have been given for the rise of cohabitation in Western cultures . The notes that the increase in individualism and secularism , and the resulting decline in religious observance , has led to greater acceptance and adoption of cohabitation ( 1988 ) Moreover , the more people observe couples cohabitating , the more normal this relationship seems , and the more couples will then . Thus , cohabitation is both a cause and the effect of greater cohabitation . A second explanation focuses on the economic changes . The growth of industry and the modernization of many cultures has improved women social status , leading to greater gender equality and sexual freedom , with marriage no longer being the only relationship option ( 1990 ) A explanation suggests that changes in employment requirements , with many jobs now requiring more advanced education , has led to a delay in marriage while youth pursue education ( Yu Xie , 2015 ) Since most people marry soon after they have competed their highest level of education ( people who complete only high school generally marry at years old whereas people who graduate college typically marry at age ) this might account for the increase in the age of marriage in many nations . Taken together , the greater acceptance of premarital sex , and the economic and educational changes would lead to a transition in relationships . Overall , cohabitation may become a step in the courtship process or may , for some , replace marriage altogether . Similar increases in cohabitation have also occurred in other industrialized countries . For example , rates are high in Great Britain , Australia , Sweden , Denmark , and Finland . In fact , more children in Sweden are born to couples than to married couples . The lowest rates of cohabitation in industrialized countries are in Ireland , Italy , and Japan ( 2005 ) Cohabitation in Cultures , the Philippines and China . Similar to other nations , young people in the Philippines are more likely to delay marriage , to , and to engage in premarital sex as compared to previous generations ( Williams , 2007 ) Despite these changes , however , many young people are still not in favor of these practices . Moreover , there is still a persistence of traditional gender norms as there are stark differences in the acceptance of sexual behavior out of wedlock for men and women in Philippine society . Young men are given greater freedom . In China , young adults are cohabitating in higher numbers than in the past ( Yu Xie , 2015 ) Unlike many Western cultures , in China adults with higher , rather than lower , levels of education are more likely to . Yu and Xie suggest this may be because cohabitation is seen as more innovative or modern , and that those who are more highly educated may have had more exposure to Western cultures . 320 Family Life Cycle
Marriage Worldwide . Cohen ( 2013 ) reviewed data assessing most of the world countries and found that rates of marriage have declined universally during the last several decades Although this decline has occurred in both poor and rich countries , the countries with the biggest drops in marriage were mostly rich France , Italy , Germany , Japan and the Cohen argues that these declines are due not only to individuals delaying marriage , but also to higher rates of marital cohabitation . Delays or decreases in marriage are associated with higher income and lower fertility rates that are observed worldwide Marriage in the United States . In 1960 , 72 of adults age 18 or older were married , in 2010 this number had dropped to barely half ( Wang Taylor , 2011 ) At the same time , the age of marriage has been increasing for both men and women . In 1960 , the average age for marriage was 20 for women and 23 for men . By 2010 this had increased to for women and nearly 29 for men ( see Figure ) Many of the explanations for increases in singlehood and cohabitation provided previously ( especially increasing number of years of education ) can also account for the drop and delay in marriage . Current Marital Status , 19600010 Media Age pi , Marriage , 960 20 Nev or I 100 Men Women 29 1960 19 ! 2010 ' 1960 1970 19 1993 2010 FEW new ESE CENTER Figure . Marriage in the US . Marriage . In June 26 , 2015 , the United States Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution guarantees sex . The decision indicated that limiting marriage to only heterosexual couples violated the amendment guarantee of equal protection under the law . This ruling occurred 11 years after marriage was made legal in Massachusetts , and at the time of the high court decision , 36 states and the District of Columbia had legalized same sex marriage . Worldwide , 29 countries currently have national laws allowing gays and lesbians to marry ( Pew Research Center , 2019 ) Cultural on Marriage . Many cultures have both explicit and unstated rules that specify who is an appropriate mate . Consequently , mate selection is not completely left Family Life Cycle 321
to the individual . Rules of endogamy indicate the groups we should marry within and those we should not ( 2009 ) For example , many cultures specify that people marry within their own race , social class , age group , or religion . For example , for most of its history , the US upheld laws that criminalized marriage between people from different races the last such laws were struck down by a Supreme Court ruling in 1967 . Endogamy reinforces the cohesiveness of the group . Additionally , these rules encourage homogamy or marriage between people who share social characteristics . The majority of marriages in the are homogamous with respect to race , social class , age and to a lesser extent , religion . Homogamy is also seen in couples with similar personalities and interests . Arranged Marriages and Elopement . Historically , marriage was not a personal choice , but one made by one family . Arranged marriages often ensured proper transference of a family wealth and the support of ethnic and religious customs . Such marriages were considered a marriage of families rather than of individuals . In Western Europe , starting in the century , the notion of personal choice in a marital partner slowly became the norm . Arranged marriages were seen as traditional and marriages based on love Many of these early love marriages were accomplished by eloping ( Thornton , 2005 ) Around the world , more and more young couples are choosing their own partners , even in nations where arranged marriages are still the norm , such as India and Pakistan . and ( 2010 ) found that in India only of the women they surveyed , aged , had a primary role in choosing their partner . Only 22 knew their partner for more than one month before they were married . However , the younger cohort of women was more likely to have been consulted by their families before their partner was chosen than were the older cohort , suggesting that family views are changing about personal choice . 2013 ) reports that this may also underestimate young choice , as only women were surveyed . Many families in India are increasingly allowing sons veto power over the parents choice of his future spouse , and some families give daughters the same say . Happiness and Marital Satisfaction . Although research frequently suggests that marriage is associated with higher rates of happiness , this does not guarantee that getting married will make you happy ! The quality of ones marriage matters greatly . When a person remains in a problematic marriage , it takes an emotional toll . Indeed , a large body of research shows that people overall life satisfaction is affected by their satisfaction with their marriage ( Williams , Powers , Chen , Campbell , 2005 , Helms , 2007 ) Marital satisfaction has peaks and valleys during the course of the family life cycle . Rates of happiness are highest in the years prior to the birth of the child . It hits a low point with the arrival of the second ( or more ) child . Children bring new demands and expectations to the marital relationship , along with more hardships and stress . Many people who are comfortable with their roles as partners added parental duties and expectations more challenging to meet . Some couples elect not to have children , for a variety of reasons . These couples , for example , may choose to focus more time and attention on their partners , careers , and interests . Gender Role Changes . With the coming of the child , gender roles in committed relationships typically become more traditional . In western countries , women often take on more domestic responsibilities and duties at this time ( 2010 , 2005 ) for many women , this shift away from a largely egalitarian relationship may be one of the reasons that martial satisfaction suffers . The most egalitarian gender roles typically occur when children are older , and in the empty nest stage . Parenthood Parenthood is undergoing changes in the United States and elsewhere in the world . Women in the United States have fewer children than they did previously , and children are less likely to be living with both parents . The average fertility rate of women in the United States was about seven children in the early and has remained relatively stable at 322 Family Life Cycle
since the ( Hamilton , Martin , Ventura , 2011 Martinez , Daniels , Chandra , 2012 ) Not only are parents having fewer children , the context of parenthood has also changed . Parenting outside of marriage has increased dramatically among most socioeconomic , racial , and ethnic groups , although women are substantially more likely to be married at the birth of a child than are mothers with less education ( Dye , 2010 ) People are having children at older ages , too . This is not surprising given that many of the age markers for adulthood have been delayed , including marriage , completing an education , establishing oneself at work , and gaining independence . In 2014 , the average age for American mothers was years ( 2015 ) The birth rate for women in their early has declined in recent years , while the birth rate for women in their late has risen . In 2011 , 40 of births were to women ages 30 and older . For Canadian women , birth rates are even higher for women in their late than in their early . In 2011 , 52 of births were to women ages 30 and older , and the average Canadian mother was years old ( 2013 ) Improved birth control methods have also enabled women to postpone motherhood . Despite the fact that young people are more often delaying childbearing , most to want to have children and say that being a good parent is one of the most important things in life ( Wang Taylor , 2011 ) on Parenting . Parenting is a complex process in which parents and children one another . There are many reasons that parents behave the way they do . The multiple on parenting are still being explored . Proposed on parenting include Parent characteristics , child characteristics , and contextual and sociocultural characteristics . 1984 , 1999 ) Parent Characteristics . Parents bring unique traits and qualities to the parenting relationship that affect their decisions as parents . These characteristics include the age of the parent , gender , beliefs , personality , developmental history , knowledge about parenting and child development , and mental and physical health . Parents personalities affect parenting behaviors . Mothers and fathers who are more agreeable , conscientious , and outgoing are warmer and provide more structure to their children . Parents who are more agreeable , less anxious , and less negative also support their autonomy more than parents who are anxious and less agreeable ( 2009 ) Parents who have these personality traits appear to be better able to respond to their children positively and provide a more consistent , structured environment for their children . Parents developmental histories , or their experiences as children , also affect their parenting strategies . Parents may learn parenting practices from their own parents . Fathers whose own parents provided monitoring , consistent and appropriate discipline , and warmth were more likely to provide this constructive parenting to their own children ( Kerr , Pears , Owen , 2009 ) Patterns of negative parenting and ineffective discipline also appear from one generation to the next . However , parents who are with their own parents approach may be more likely to change their parenting methods with their own children . Child Characteristics . Parenting is bidirectional . Not only do parents affect their children , children their parents . Child characteristics , such as gender , birth order , temperament , and health status , affect parenting behaviors and roles . For example , an infant with an easy temperament may enable parents to feel more effective , as they are easily able to soothe the child and elicit smiling and cooing . On the other hand , a cranky or fussy infant elicits fewer positive reactions from his or her parents and may result in parents feeling less effective in the parenting role ( et , 2008 ) Over time , parents of more children may become more punitive and less patient with their children ( Clark , Ready , 2000 et , 1999 , 2011 ) Parents who have a fussy , Family Life Cycle 323
child are less with their marriages and have greater challenges in balancing work and family roles ( Hyde , Quest , Goldsmith , 2004 ) Thus , child temperament is one of the child characteristics that how parents behave with their children . Another child characteristic is the gender of the child . Parents respond differently to boys and girls . Parents talk differently with their sons and daughters , providing more explanations to their sons and using more emotion words with their daughters ( Crowley , Allen , 2001 ) Parents also often assign different household chores to their sons and daughters . Girls are more often responsible for caring for younger siblings and household chores , whereas boys are more likely to be asked to perform chores outside the home , such as mowing the lawn ( Cohen , 1996 ) Contextual Factors and Sociocultural Characteristics . The relationship does not occur in isolation . As we discussed in the previous section on families and parenting , parenting is by sociocultural . Sociocultural characteristics , including economic hardship , religion , politics , neighborhoods , schools , and social support , also parenting . Parents who experience economic hardship are more easily frustrated , depressed , and sad , and these emotional characteristics affect their parenting skills ( Conger . Conger , 2002 ) Culture also parenting behaviors in fundamental ways . Although promoting the development of skills necessary to function effectively in ones community is a universal goal of parenting , the skills necessary vary widely from culture to culture . Thus , parents have different goals for their children that partially depend on their culture ( et , 2008 ) Parents vary in how much they emphasize goals for independence and individual achievements , maintaining harmonious relationships , and being embedded in a strong network of social relationships . Culture is also a contributing contextual factor . For example , Latina mothers who perceived their neighborhood as more dangerous showed less warmth with their children , perhaps because of the greater stress associated with living a threatening environment ( Gonzales et , 2011 ) Other important contextual characteristics , such as the neighborhood , school , and social networks , also affect parenting , even though these settings do not always include both the child and the parent ( 1989 ) This would be a good time to go back and the section in Unit 42 Family on of parenting , and the two papers that examined the ways that poverty and structural racism make parenting more challenging . As you may remember , there are three major ways that status hierarchies , like those organized around class and race , make parenting more . Inequities create objective living conditions that are developmentally hazardous to children and families . Hardships and discrimination force people to parent under stressful conditions and . Families must expend effort to counteract the pervasive effects of discrimination and prejudice on the development of their children and adolescents . Pay special attention to the recommendations provided in that section about how to make more supportive of the important jobs of parenting and providing for a family , which are challenging tasks even under the best of circumstances The many factors that parenting are depicted in the following . 324 Family Life Cycle
Parent Characteristics Examples Personality Developmental history Mental health Beliefs Knowledge Gender Age Child Characteristics Examples Temperament Gender Skills Behavior Age Contextual Sociocultural Characteristics Examples Social network Work Setting Neighborhood School Culture Parenting Figure . on parenting Family Life in Middle Adulthood The sandwich generation refers to adults who have at least one parent age 65 or older and are either raising their own children or providing support for their grown children . According to a recent Pew Research survey , 47 of adults are part of this sandwich generation ( Parker . Patten , 2013 ) In addition , 15 of adults are providing support to an older parent while raising or supporting their own children ( see Figure ) According to the same survey , almost half ( 48 ) of adults , have supported their adult children in the past year , and 27 are the primary source of support for their grown children . percent of the sandwich generation is age , 19 were younger than 40 , and 10 were 60 or older . Hispanics are more likely to themselves Sandwiched Between Aging Parents and Kids ages 40 to 59 who 2005 raising a minor child or supporting a grown child 45 Provided support to 15 parent and child any again the 12 raw FEW RESEARCH CENTER . i . Figure . Source supporting two generations 31 have parents 65 or older and a dependent child , compared with 24 of whites and 21 of blacks ( Parker Patten , 2013 ) Women are more likely to take on the role of care provider for older parents in the US . and Germany ( Pew Research , 2015 ) About 20 of women say they have helped with personal care , such as getting dressed or bathing , of aging parents in the past year , compared with of men in the US . and in Germany . In contrast , in Italy men are just as likely ( 25 ) as women ( 26 ) to have provided personal care . Family Life Cycle 325
The Pew survey found that almost 33 of the Financial Stress and the generation adults were more likely to say they always feel Ge rushed , while only 23 of other adults said this . However , the survey suggests that those who were supporting both parents How would you describe your households th ?
an ren as appy as ose aged adults who did not themselves in the sandwich Sandwich Generation . supporting supporting both parents and children did report greater strain parent parent LIVE comfortably 28 41 Meet basic expenses generation ( Parker Patten , 2013 ) Adults who are supporting ( see Figure ) Only 28 reported that they were living comfortably versus 41 of those who were not also a we left Over 30 31 supporting their parents . Almost 33 were just making ends Just meet bag expenses 30 17 meet , compared with 17 of those who did not have the Do have enough to additional burden of aging parents . meet basic expenses 11 10 Empty nest . The empty nest , or period refers to the time period when children are grown up and have left home ( Dudley Guthrie , 2002 ) For most parents this occurs during midlife . This time is recognized as a normative FEW CENTER event as parents are aware that their children will become adults and eventually leave home ( Mitchell , Figure . Source 2009 ) The empty nest creates complex emotions , both positive and negative , for many parents . Some theorists suggest this is a time of role loss for parents , others suggest it is one of role strain relief ( 2013 ) The role loss hypothesis predicts that when people lose an important role in their life they experience a decrease in emotional . It is from this perspective that the concept of the empty nest syndrome emerged , which refers to great emotional distress experienced by parents , typically mothers , after children have left home . The empty nest syndrome is linked to the absence of alternative roles for the parent in which they could establish their identity ( 1982 ) In ( 2013 ) review of the research , she found that few parents reported loneliness or a big sense of loss once all their children had left home . In contrast , the role stress relief hypothesis suggests that the empty nest period should lead to more positive changes for parents , as the responsibility of raising children has been lifted . The role strain relief hypothesis was supported by many studies in ( 2013 ) review . A consistent throughout the research literature is that raising children has a negative impact on the quality of martial relationships ( 2009 , 2013 ) Most studies report that martial satisfaction often increases during the launching phase of the empty nest period , and that this satisfaction endures long after the last child has left home ( John , 2008 ) However , most of the research on the period has been with American parents . A number of studies in China suggest that , especially in more rural areas of China , report greater loneliness and depression than their counterparts with children still at home ( Wu et , 2010 ) Family support for the elderly by their children is a cherished Chinese tradition ( Wong Leung , 2012 ) The fact that children move from the rural communities to the larger cities for education and employment may explain the more negative reaction of Chinese parents compared to American samples . The loss of an adult child in a rural region may mean a loss of family income and support for aging parents . in urban regions of China did not report the same degree of distress ( Su et , 2012 ) suggesting that it not so much the event of children leaving , but the additional hardships this may place on aging parents . 326 Family Life Cycle
are the generation most likely to live at home ) Io III ( II ! 2016 Gen in 2000 Late Boomers In 1990 Boomerang Kids . Young adults are living with their parents for a longer duration and in greater numbers than previous generations . In addition to those in early adulthood who are not leaving the home of their parents , there are also boomerang kids , a term used to refer to young adults who return after having lived independently outside the home . The Figure shows the number of American young people who were living at home based on their generation ( Fry , 2017 ) The second Figure with the European map , shows that more young adults in Europe are also living with their parents ( Desilver , 2016 ) Many of the same reasons that are young peoples decisions to delay exit from the home of their parents are underlying their decisions to return home . In addition , to reasons , some boomerang kids are returning because of emotional distress , such as mental health issues ( Snyder , Jang , 2015 ) Early Boomers II ! 1981 What is the effect on parents when their adult children return in 1964 home ?
Certainly , there is considerable research that that the of raising shows it any stress RESEARCH CENTER children can have a negative impact on parents being , that when children leave home many couples experience less Figure and stress and greater life satisfaction ( see the section on the empty nest ) Early research in the and supported the notion that boomerang children , along with those who were failing to exit the home , placed greater hardship on the parents , and the parents reported more negative perceptions of this living arrangement ( Aquilino , 1991 ) Recent surveys suggest that today parents are more tolerant of this , perhaps because this is becoming a more normative experience than in the past . Moreover , children who return are more likely to have had good relationships with their parents growing up , so there may be less stress between parents and their adult children who return ( et , 2015 ) Parents of young adults who have moved back home because of economic reasons report that they are just as Many young Europeans live with their parents , especially in southern and eastern Europe adults ( ages ) with . 2014 30 40 50 60 Low High , Denmark ' 19 13 Norway Sweden En . Denmark . UK . German Iv Switzerland Francs I of mung mun ma PEW RESEARCH CENTER Figure with their life as are parents whose adult children are still living independently ( Parker , 2012 ) Parker found that adult children age 25 and older are more likely to contribute to the family or complete chores and other household duties . Parker also found that living in a household may be acting as an economic safety net for young Family Life Cycle 327
adults . In comparison to young adults who were living outside of the home , those living with their parents were less likely to be living in poverty ( 17 versus 10 ) So far , we have considered the impact that adult children who have returned home or have yet to leave the nest have on the lives of parents . What about the effect on parents who have adult children dealing with personal problems , such as alcoholism , chronic health concerns , mental health issues , trouble with the law , poor social relationships , or academic or problems , even if they are not living at home ?
The life course perspective proposes the idea of linked lives ( Marks , 2006 ) The notion that people in important relationships , such as children and parents , mutually each others developmental pathways . In previous chapters you have read about the effects that parents have on their children development , but this relationship is bidirectional . The problems faced by children , even when those children are adults , the lives of their parents . and Marks found in their study of parents and their adult children , those parents whose children were dealing with personal problems reported more negative affect , lower , poorer interactions , and more family relationship stress . The more problems the adult children were facing , the worse the lives and emotional health of their parents , with single parents faring the worst . Committed Relationships in Middle Adulthood Singlehood . According to a Pew Research study , 16 per adults age 45 to 54 and per 1000 age 55 and over have in the ( Wang Parker , 2014 ) some of them may be living with a partner . In addition , some singles at midlife may be single through divorce or widowhood . 2014 ) has challenged the idea that singles , especially the always single , fare worse emotionally and in health when compared to those married . suggests there is a bias in how studies examine the of marriage . Most studies focus on comparisons between married versus not married , which do not include a separate comparison between those always single , and those who are single because of divorce or widowhood . Her research has found that those who are married may be more with life than the divorced or widowed , but there is little difference between married and always single , especially when comparing those who are recently married with those who have been married for four or more years . It appears that once the initial blush of the honeymoon wears off , those who are wedded are no happier or healthier than those who remained single . This also suggests that it could be problematic for studies to consider the married category to be a homogeneous group . Online Dating . 2003 ) surveyed over singles aged , and almost half of the participants reported their most important reason for dating was to have someone to talk to or do things with . Additionally , sexual was also as an important goal for many . and ( 2013 ) reviewed online personal ads for men and women over age 40 and found that romantic activities and sexual interests were mentioned at similar rates among the and age groups , but less for the age group . 328 Family Life Cycle
Marriage . Trends seen in early adulthood also show up in relationships during middle adulthood , including declines Age composition , by Present status in the rate of marriage , as more people are cohabitating , more are deciding to stay single , and more are getting saw one married at a later age . As you can see in the Figure , 48 of adults age are married either in their I 22 36 marriage ( 22 ) or have remarried ( 26 ) This makes marriage the most common relationship status for 26 adults in the United States . Marital satisfaction tends to increase for many couples in . 27 45 midlife as children are leaving home ( 2005 ) Not all researchers agree . They suggest that those who are unhappy with their marriage are likely to have gotten divorced by now , making the quality of marriages later in DE life only look more satisfactory ( Williams , Powers , Chen , Campbell , 2005 ) Figure Divorce . 2014 ) found that 27 of adults age 45 to 54 were divorced ( see Figure ) Additionally , 57 of divorced adults were women . This the fact that men are more likely to remarry than are women . of divorces are initiated by women ( 2009 ) Most divorces take place within the to 10 years of marriage . This time line reflects people initial attempts to salvage the relationship . After a few years of limited success , the couple may decide to end the marriage . It used to be that divorce after having been married for 20 or more years was rare , but in recent years the divorce rate among more marriages has been increasing . Brown and Lin ( 2013 ) note that while the divorce rate in the US . has declined since the 19905 , the rate among those 50 and older has doubled . They suggest several reasons for the graying of divorce . There is less stigma attached to divorce today than in the past . Some older women are their spouses , and thus may be more capable of supporting themselves , especially as most of their children have grown . Finally , given increases in human longevity , the prospect of living several more years or decades with an incompatible spouse may prompt and older adults to leave the marriage . and ( 2000 ) found that divorces in early adulthood were angrier and more , with each partner blaming the other for the failures in the marriage . In contrast , they found that at midlife divorces tended to be more about having grown apart , or a cooling off of the relationship . A survey by ( 2009 ) found that men and women had diverse motivations for getting a divorce . Women reported concerns about the verbal and physical abusiveness of their partner ( 23 ) alcohol abuse ( 18 ) and ( 17 ) In contrast , men mentioned they had simply fallen out of love ( 17 ) no longer shared interests or values ( 14 ) and ( 14 ) Both genders felt their marriage had been over long before the decision to divorce was made , with many of the adults in the survey reporting that they stayed together because they were still raising children . Females also indicated that they remained in their marriage due to concerns , including the loss of health care ( 2015 ) However , only in adults regretted their decision to divorce . The effects of divorce are varied . Overall , young adults struggle more with the consequences of divorce than do those at midlife , as they have a higher risk of depression or other signs of problems with psychological adjustment ( 2013 ) Divorce at midlife is more stressful for women . In the ( 2009 ) survey , 44 of women mentioned problems after divorcing their spouse in comparison , only 11 of men reported such . However , a number of women who divorce in midlife report that they felt a great release from their sense of unhappiness . and Kelly ( 2002 ) found that among the divorce enhancers , those who had used the experience Family Life Cycle 329
to better themselves and seek more productive intimate relationships , and the competent loners , those who used their divorce experience to grow emotionally , but who choose to stay single , the overwhelming majority were women . Dating . Most divorced adults have dated by one year after for divorce ( Anderson et , 2004 Anderson Greene , 2011 ) One in four recent report having been in or were currently in a serious relationship , and over half were in a serious relationship by one year after for divorce . Not surprisingly , younger adults were more likely to be dating than were middle aged or older adults , no doubt due to the larger pool of potential partners from which they could to draw . Of course , these relationships will not all end in marriage . 2008 ) found that more than two thirds of women under the age of 45 had with a partner between their and second marriages . Dating for adults with children can be more of a challenge . are shorter in remarriage than in marriages . When couples are dating , there is less going out and more time spent in activities at home or with the children . So , the couple gets less time together to focus on their relationship . Anxiety or memories of past relationships can also get in the way . As one scholar suggests when a divorced man marries a divorced woman , four go to bed ( Warner , 2004 ) parents , that is , they regulate the of information about their new romantic partner to their children , in an attempt to balance their own needs for romance with consideration regarding the needs and reactions of their children . Anderson et al . 2004 ) found that almost half ( 47 ) of dating parents gradually introduce their children to their dating partner , giving both their romantic partner and children time to adjust and get to know each other . Many parents who use this approach do so to protect their children from having to keep meeting someone new until it becomes clear that this relationship might be a lasting one . It might also help if the adult relationship is on ground so it can weather any initial push back from children when it is revealed . Forty percent of people are open and transparent with their children about the new relationship right from the outset . Thirteen percent do not reveal the relationship until it is clear that cohabitation and or remarriage is likely . Anderson and colleagues suggest that practical matters which method parents may use . Parents may be able to successfully shield their children from a parade of partners if there is reliable childcare available . The age and temperament of the child , along with concerns about the reaction of the , may also when parents reveal their romantic relationships to their children . 330 Family Life Cycle
Rates of . The rate for remarriage , like the rate for marriage , has been declining overall . In 2013 the by Age remarriage rate was approximately 28 per adults 18 and ma , remarried older . This represents a 44 decline since 1990 and a 16 decline since 2008 ( Payne , 2015 ) Brown and Lin ( 2013 ) found that the rate of remarriage dropped more for younger adults than middle aged and older adults , and ( 2014 ) found that as we age , we are more likely to have remarried 43 ( see Figure ) This is not surprising as it takes some time to marry , divorce , and then someone else to marry . 57 However , found that unlike those younger than 55 , those 55 and up are remarrying at a higher rate than in the 63 past . In 2013 , 67 of adults and 50 of adults 65 and older had remarried , up from 55 and 34 in 1960 . 67 respectively . we ( Men have a higher rate of remarriage at every age group starting at age 25 ( Payne , 2015 ) 2014 ) reported that in 2013 , 64 of divorced or widowed men compared with . IF 52 of divorced or widowed women had remarried . However , this gender gap has narrowed over time . Even though more new RESEARCH men still remarry , they are remarrying at a slower rate . In contrast , women are remarrying today more than they did in 317 1980 . This gender gap has closed mostly among young and adults , but still persists among those 65 and older . In 2012 , Whites who were previously married were more likely to remarry than were other racial and ethnic groups ( 2014 ) Moreover , the rate of remarriage has increased among Whites , while the rate of remarriage has declined for other racial and ethnic groups . This increase is driven by White women , whose rate of remarriage has increased , while the rate for White males has declined . Success of . Research is mixed as to the happiness and success of , A ' While some are more successful , especially if the divorce motivated the adult to engage in and personal growth ( Kelly , 2002 ) a number of divorced adults end up in very similar marriages the second or third time around ( Kelly , 2002 ) have challenges not found in marriages and they can create additional stress in the marital relationship . There can also be a general lack of clarity in family roles and expectations when trying to incorporate new kin into the family structure . Even determining the appropriate terms for these kin , along with their roles , can be a challenge . Partners may have to carefully navigate their role when dealing with their partners children . All of this may lead to greater dissatisfaction and even resentment among family members . Even though remarried couples tend to have more realistic expectations for marriage , they tend to be less willing to stay in unhappy situations . The rate of divorce among is higher than among Figure 318 marriages ( Payne , 2015 ) which can add additional burdens , especially when children are involved . Family Life Cycle 331
Children on . Do children affect whether a parent remarries ?
and ( 2006 ) found children residing with their mothers reduces the mothers likelihood of marriage , only with respect to marrying a man without children . Further , having children in the home appears to increase single men likelihood of marrying a woman with children ( Stewart , Manning , Smock , 2003 ) There is also some evidence that individuals who participated in a while growing up may feel better prepared for living as adults . and ( 2006 ) found that having experienced family divorce as a child is associated with a greater willingness to marry a partner with children . When children are present after divorce , one of the challenges the adults encounter is how much the child will have in the selection a new partner . Greene , Anderson , and ( 2003 ) two types of parents . The parent allows the views , reactions , and needs to the . In contrast , the parent expects that their child can adapt and should accommodate to parental wishes . Anderson and Greene ( 2011 ) found that divorced custodial mothers as more adult focused tended to be older , more educated , employed , and more likely to have been married Figure longer . Additionally , mothers reported having less rapport with their children , spent less time in joint activities with their children , and the child reported lower rapport with their mothers . Lastly , when the child and partner were resisting one another , mothers responded more to the concerns of the partner , while the mothers responded more to the concerns of the child . Understanding the implications of these two differing perspectives can assist parents in their attempts to . Grandparents In addition to maintaining relationships with their children and aging parents , many people in middle adulthood take on yet another role , becoming a grandparent . The role of grandparent varies around the world . In households , grandparents may play a greater role in the activities of their grandchildren . While this family dynamic is more common in Latin America , Asia , and Africa , it has been on the increase in the US . Pew Research Center , 2010 ) Around the world , even when not cohabitating with their children and grandchildren , grandparents are usually a major source of support for new parents and young families . 332 Family Life Cycle
The degree of grandparent involvement depends on the proximity of the grandparents home to the grandchildren . In developed nations , greater societal mobility means that many grandparents live long distances from their grandchildren . Technology has brought grandparents and their more distant grandchildren together . and Cooper ( 2010 ) found that many of the grandfathers they interviewed would text , email , or Skype with their grandchildren in order to stay in touch . and ( 1986 ) described three styles of grandparents . Thirty percent of grandparents were remote because they rarely saw their grandchildren . Usually they lived Figure . Grandparents are an important source of support for young families far away from the grandchildren but may also have had a distant relationship . Contact was typically made on special occasions , such as holidays or birthdays . percent of grandparents were described as companionate because they did things with their grandchildren but had little authority or control over them . They preferred to spend time with them without interfering in parenting . They were more like friends to their grandchildren . Fifteen percent of grandparents were described as involved because they took a very active role in their grandchild life . The involved grandparent had frequent contact with and authority over the grandchild , and their grandchildren might even live with them . Depending on the circumstances ( which sometimes involve problems with the grandchildren parents , such as illness or addiction ) taking over the parenting role for grandchildren can be stressful or it can be rewarding , or both . Grandmothers , more so than grandfathers , played this role . In contrast , more grandfathers than grandmothers saw their role as family historian and family advisor ( and , 1964 ) 2001 ) suggests that grandparents adopt different styles with different grandchildren , and over time may change styles as circumstances in the family change . Today more grandparents are the sole care providers for grandchildren or may step in at times of crisis . Family Caregivers A disabled child , spouse , parent , or other family member is part of the lives of some midlife adults . According to the National Alliance for ( 2015 ) 40 million Americans provide unpaid for family members . The typical caregiver is a female currently caring for a 69 female who needs care because of a physical condition . Looking more closely at the age of the recipient of , the typical caregiver for those years of age is a female ( 61 ) caring mostly for her own child ( 32 ) followed by a spouse or partner ( 17 ) When looking at older recipients ( who receive care , the typical caregiver is female ( 60 ) caring for a parent ( 47 ) or spouse ( 10 ) places an enormous burden on the caregiver , and is one of the most demanding and stressful roles that people can take on . for a young or adult child with special needs is associated with poorer global health and more physical symptoms among both fathers and mothers ( Seltzer , Floyd , Song , Hong , 2011 ) Marital relationships are also a factor in how affects stress and chronic conditions . Fathers who were caregivers reported more chronic health conditions than fathers , regardless of marital quality . In contrast , mothers reported higher levels of chronic conditions when they also reported a high level of marital strain ( Kang Marks , 2014 ) Age can also make a difference in how one is affected by the stress of caring for a child with special needs . Using data from the Study of Midlife in the Unites States , Hong , Seltzer and ( 2008 ) found that older parents were less likely to experience the negative effects of having a disabled child than younger parents . They concluded that an weakening of the stress occurred over time , as other children became independent and left home . The general trend of greater emotional stability noted at midlife may also have played a role . Family Life Cycle 333
Currently 25 of adult children , mainly baby boomers , provide personal or care to a parent ( 2011 ) Daughters are more likely to provide basic care and sons are more likely to provide assistance . Adult children who work and provide care to a parent are more likely to have fair or poor health when compared to those who do not provide care . Some adult children choose to leave the work force to care for a parent , however , the cost of leaving the work force early is high . For females , lost wages and social security equals , while for men it equals ( 2011 ) This loss can jeopardize the adult child future . Consequently , there is a need for greater workplace for working caregivers . Spousal Care . Certainly , caring for a disabled spouse can be a experience that can negatively affect one health . However , research indicates that there can also be positive health effects for caring for a disabled spouse . Beach , Yee and Jackson ( 2000 ) evaluated health related outcomes in four groups Spouses with no needed ( Group ) living with a disabled spouse but not providing care ( Group ) living with a disabled spouse and providing care ( Group ) and helping a disabled spouse while reporting caregiver strain , including elevated levels of emotional and physical stress ( Group ) Not surprisingly , the participants in Group were the least healthy and poorer perceived health , an increase in behaviors , and an increase in anxiety and depression symptoms . However , those in Group who provided care for a spouse , but did not identify caregiver strain , actually reported decreased levels of anxiety and depression compared to Group and were actually similar to those in Group . It appears that greater involvement was related to better mental health as long as the spouse did not feel strain . The effects of helping reported by the participants were consistent with previous research ( Baker , 1992 et , 1997 ) When caring for a disabled spouse , gender differences have also been found . Female caregivers of a spouse with dementia experienced more burden , had poorer mental and physical health , exhibited increased depressive symptomatology , took part in fewer activities , and received fewer hours of help than male caregivers ( Gibbons et , 2014 ) This study was consistent with previous research that women experience more burden than men , despite similar situations ( Reed , 2004 Yeager , Hobbs , 2010 ) A primary factor contributing to women poorer outcomes is that disabled males are more aggressive than females , especially males with dementia who display more physical and sexual aggression toward their caregivers ( 1997 , de , 2009 ) Explanations for why women are not offered or do not use more external support , which may alleviate some of the burden , include expectations that they should assume roles ( et al , 2004 ) and womens concerns with the opinions of others ( 2000 ) Female caregivers are certainly at risk for negative consequences of , and greater support needs to be available to them . According to the Institute of Medicine ( 2015 ) it is estimated that 66 million Americans , or 29 of the adult population , are caregivers for someone who is dying or chronically ill . of these caregivers are women . This care takes its toll physically , emotionally , and . Family caregivers may face the physical challenges of lifting , dressing , feeding , bathing , and transporting a dying or ill family member . They may worry about whether they are performing all tasks safely and properly , as they receive little training or guidance . Such tasks may also interfere with their ability to take care of themselves and meet other family and workplace obligations . Financially , families often face high out of pocket expenses ( 2015 ) As can be seen in the table below , most family caregivers are providing care by themselves with little professional intervention , are employed , and have provided care for more than years . In 2013 , the annual loss of productivity in the US . was 25 billion as a result of work absenteeism due to providing this care . As the prevalence of chronic disease rises , the need for family caregivers is growing . Unfortunately , the number of potential family caregivers is declining as the large baby boomer generation enters into late adulthood ( Redfoot , Houser , 2013 ) 334 Family Life Cycle
Table Characteristics caregivers in the United States Characteristic Percentages No home visits by health care professionals 69 Caregivers are also employed 72 Duration of employed workers who have been for years 55 Caregivers for the elderly 67 adapted from , 2019 and , 2015 Friendships in Middle Adulthood Adults of all ages who reported having a or close friend with whom they could share personal feelings and concerns , believed these friends contributed to a sense of belonging , security , and overall wellbeing ( 2007 ) Having a close friend is a factor in lower odds of psychiatric morbidity including depression and anxiety ( Harrison , Barrow , Creed , 1999 Newton et , 2008 ) The availability of a close friend has also been shown to lessen the adverse effects of stress on health ( 1998 et , 2008 Tower , 1995 ) Additionally , poor social connectedness in adulthood is associated with a larger risk of premature mortality than cigarette smoking , obesity , and excessive alcohol use ( Smith , 2010 ) Female friendships and social support networks at midlife contribute to a womans feeling of life satisfaction and ( Kennedy , 2009 ) and Myers ( 2006 ) found that women who have supportive people in their lives experience greater life satisfaction than do those who live a more solitary life . A friendship network or the presence of a have both been found to be important to i middle mental health ( Baruch , 1984 ) Unfortunately , with numerous caretaking responsibilities at home , it may be for women to time and energy to enhance the friendships that would provide an increased sense of life satisfaction ( et , 2009 ) Hunt and Lyons ( 2013 ) found that for men in midlife , the shared consumption of alcohol was important to creating and maintaining male friends . Drinking with friends was as a way for men to talk to each other , provide social support , relax , and improve mood . Although the social support provided when men drink together can be helpful , the role of alcohol in male friendships can lead to health damaging behavior from excessive drinking . The importance of social relationships begins in early adulthood by laying down a foundation for strong social connectedness and facilitating comfort with intimacy ( 1959 ) To determine the impact of the quantity and quality of social relationships in young adulthood on middle adulthood , Reis , and ( 2015 ) assessed individuals at age 50 on measures of social connection ( types of relationships and friendship quality ) and psychological outcomes ( loneliness , depression , psychological ) Results indicated that the quantity of social interactions at age 20 and the quality , but not quantity , of social interaction at age 30 predicted midlife social interactions . Those individuals who had high levels of social information seeking ( quantity ) at age 20 followed by fewer social relationships but greater emotional closeness ( quality ) ended up showing the most positive psychosocial adjustment at midlife . Family Life Cycle 335
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