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UNIT ADOLESCENCE Unit Adolescence 231 Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development Development of refers to beliefs about general personal identity ( 2011 ) These beliefs include personal attributes , such as one age , physical characteristics , behaviors , and . Children in middle and late childhood have a more realistic sense of self than do those in early childhood , and they better understand their strengths and weaknesses . This can be attributed to greater experience in comparing their own performance with that of others , and to greater cognitive . Children in middle and late childhood are also able to include other peoples appraisals of them into their , including parents , teachers , peers , culture , and media . internalizing others appraisals and creating social comparison affect children , which is as an evaluation of ones identity . Children can have individual assessments of how well they perform a variety of activities and also develop an overall global . If there is a discrepancy between how children view themselves and what they consider to be their ideal selves , their can be negatively affected , Another important development in is , which is the belief that you are capable of carrying out a task or of reaching a goal ( 1977 , 1986 , 1997 ) Large discrepancies between and ability can create motivational problems for the individual ( 2011 ) If a student believes that he or she can solve mathematical problems , then the student is more likely to attempt the mathematics homework that the teacher assigns . Unfortunately , the converse is also true . If a student believes that he or she is incapable of math , then the student is less likely to attempt the math homework regardless of the actual ability in math . Since is , it Figure . Hopefully these children have about is possible for students to miscalculate or misperceive their the true skill , and these can have complex effects on students motivations . It is possible to have either too much or too little , and according to ( 1997 ) the optimum level seems to be either at , or slightly above , one true ability . 232 Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development
Theories of Intelligence Psychologists have long debated how to best conceptualize and measure intelligence ( 2003 ) These questions include How many types of intelligence there are , the role of nature versus nurture in intelligence , how intelligence is represented in the brain , and the meaning of group differences in intelligence . General ( versus ( Intelligences . From the French psychologist Alfred ( and his colleague Theodore Simon ( began working on behalf of the French government to develop a measure that would identify children who would not be successful with the regular school curriculum . The goal was to help teachers better educate these students ( 1994 ) and Simon developed what most psychologists today regard as the intelligence test , which consisted of a wide variety of questions that included the ability to name objects , words , draw pictures , complete sentences , compare items , and construct Figure Alfred sentences . and Simon ( Simon , Town , 1915 , 1992 ) believed that the questions they asked the children all assessed the basic abilities to understand , reason , and make judgments . It turned out that the correlations among these different types of measures were in fact all positive that is , students who got one item correct were more likely to also get other items correct , even though the questions themselves were very different . On the basis of these results , the psychologist Charles Spearman ( hypothesized that there must be a single underlying construct that all of these items measure . He called the construct that the different abilities and skills measured on intelligence tests have in common the General Intelligence Factor ( Virtually all psychologists now believe that there is a generalized intelligence factor , that relates to abstract thinking and that includes the abilities to acquire knowledge , to reason abstractly , to adapt to novel situations , and to from instruction and experience ( 1997 , 2003 ) People with higher general intelligence learn faster . Soon after and Simon introduced their test , the American psychologist Lewis at Stanford University ( developed an American version of test that became known as the Intelligence Test . The is a measure of general intelligence made up of a wide variety of tasks , including vocabulary , memory for pictures , naming of familiar objects , repeating sentences , and following commands . Although there is general agreement among psychologists that exists , there is also evidence for intelligence or , a measure of skills in narrow domains . One empirical result in support of the idea of comes from intelligence tests themselves . Although the different types of questions do correlate with each other , some items correlate more highly with each other than do other items they form clusters or clumps of intelligences . Theory . One advocate of the idea of multiple intelligences is the psychologist Robert . has proposed a ( theory of intelligence which holds that people may display more or less analytical intelligence , creative intelligence , and practical intelligence . 1985 , 2003 ) argued that traditional intelligence tests assess analytical intelligence , academic problem solving and performing calculations , but that they do not typically assess creative intelligence , the ability to adapt to new situations and create new ideas , or practical intelligence , the ability to demonstrate common sense and . As proposed , research has found that creativity is not highly correlated with analytical intelligence ( Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development 233
, 2008 ) and exceptionally creative scientists , artists , mathematicians , and engineers do not score higher on intelligence than do their less , creative peers ( 2000 ) Furthermore , the brain areas that are associated with convergent thinking , thinking that is directed toward the correct answer to a given problem , are different from those associated with divergent thinking , the ability to generate many different ideas or solutions to a single problem ( 2010 ) On the other hand , being creative often takes some of the basic abilities measured by , including the abilities to learn from experience , to remember information , and to think abstractly ( Bink Marsh , 2000 ) 1998 ) 2006 ) and ( 2010 ) and ( 1992 ) studied creative people and at least components that are likely to be important for creativity as listed in Table . Table Important Components for Creativity Component Description Expertise Creative people have studied and learned about a topic Imaginative Thinking Creative people view problems in new and different ways Risk Taking Creative people take on new , but potentially risky approaches Intrinsic Interest Creative people take on projects for interest not money Working in Creative The most creative people are supported , aided , and challenged by other people working on Environments similar projects adapted from Lally , 2019 The last aspect of the model , practical intelligence , refers primarily to intelligence that can not be gained from books or formal learning . Practical intelligence represents a type of street smarts or common sense that is learned from life experiences . Although a number of tests have been devised to measure practical intelligence ( Wagner , 1993 Wagner , 1985 ) research has not found much evidence that practical intelligence is distinct from or that it is predictive of success at particular tasks ( 2003 ) Practical intelligence may include , at least in part , certain abilities that help people perform well at jobs , and these abilities may not always be highly correlated with general intelligence ( et , 1993 ) Theory of Multiple Intelligences . Another champion of the idea of types of intelligences rather than one overall intelligence is the psychologist Howard Gardner ( 1983 , 1999 ) Gardner argued that it would be functional for different people to have different talents and skills , and proposed that there are eight intelligences that can be differentiated from each other . Table 72 lists Gardner eight intelligences . 234 I Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development
Table Howard Gardner Eight Intelligence Description Linguistic The ability to speak and write well The ability to use logic and mathematical skills to solve problems Spatial The ability to think and reason about objects in three dimensions Musical The ability to perform and enjoy music Kinesthetic ( body ) The ability to move the body in sports , dance or other physical activities Interpersonal The ability to understand and interact effectively with others The ability to have insight into the self Naturalistic The ability to recognize , identify , and understand animals , plants , and other living things Adapted from Gardner , 1999 ) Intelligence reframed Multiple intelligences for the century . New York , NY Basic Books . Gardner these intelligences using multiple sources of evidence . He conducted psychometric analyses of tests designed to capture different kinds of intelligence . He also examined evidence from studies of children who were talented in one or more areas , and from studies of adults who suffered brain damage from strokes that compromised capacities in some areas , but not in others . Gardner also noted that some evidence for multiple intelligences comes from the abilities of autistic savants , people who score low on intelligence tests overall , but who nevertheless may have exceptional skills in a given domain , such as math , music , art , or in being able to recite statistics in a given sport ( Wallace , 2004 ) A potential ninth intelligence that is , existential intelligence , still needs empirical support . The idea of multiple intelligences has been in the of education , and teachers have used these ideas to try to teach differently to different students . For instance , to teach math problems to students who have particularly good kinesthetic intelligence , a teacher might encourage the students to move their bodies or hands according to the numbers . On the other hand , some have argued that these intelligences sometimes seem more like abilities or talents rather than real intelligence . There is no clear conclusion about how many intelligences there are . Are sense of humor , artistic skills , dramatic skills , and so forth also separate intelligences ?
Furthermore , and again demonstrating the underlying power of a single intelligence , the many different intelligences are , in fact , correlated and thus represent , in part , Brody , 2003 ) Measuring Intelligence Standardization and the Intelligence Quotient The goal of most intelligence tests is to measure , the general intelligence factor . Good intelligence tests are reliable , meaning that they are consistent over time , and also demonstrate validity , meaning that they actually measure intelligence rather than something else . Because intelligence is such an important individual difference dimension , psychologists have invested substantial effort in creating and improving measures of intelligence , and these tests are now considered the most accurate of all psychological tests . In fact , the ability to accurately assess intelligence is one of the most important contributions of psychology to everyday public life . Intelligence changes with age . A who could accurately multiply 183 by 39 would certainly be intelligent , but a who could not do so would be seen as unintelligent . Thus , understanding intelligence requires that we know the norms or standards in a given population of people at a given age . The standardization of a test involves giving it to a large number of people at different ages and computing the average score on the test at each age level . It is important that intelligence tests be standardized on a regular basis , because the overall level of intelligence in a population may change over time . The Flynn effect refers to the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development 235
have increased substantially over the past decades ( Flynn , 1999 ) Although the increase varies somewhat from country to country , the average increase is about IQ points every 10 years . There are many explanations for the Flynn effect , including better nutrition , increased access to information , and more familiarity with tests ( 1998 ) Whether people are actually getting smarter , however , is debatable ( 1997 ) Most of the increase in IQ occurred during the second half of the century . Recent research has found a reversal of the Flynn effect in several nations around the world , although some nations still show an increase in IQ scores ( Dutton , van der Linden , Lynn , 2016 ) Once the standardization has been accomplished , we have a picture of the average abilities of people at different ages and can calculate a person mental age , which is the age at which a person is performing intellectually . If we compare the mental age of a person to the person chronological age , the result is the Intelligence Quotient ( IQ ) a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age . A simple way to calculate IQ is by using the following formula IQ mental age chronological age 100 . Thus a child who does as well as the average child has an IQ of 100 ( 10 10 100 ) whereas an child who does as well as the average child would have an IQ of 125 ( 10 100 ) Most modern intelligence tests are based on the relative position of a persons score among people of the same age , rather than on the basis of this formula , but the idea of an intelligence ratio or quotient provides a good description of the scores meaning . Scales . A number of scales are based on the IQ . The Adult Intelligence Scale ( is the most widely used intelligence test for adults ( Watkins , Campbell , Hallmark , 1995 ) The current version of the , the , was standardized on people ranging from 16 to 90 years of age . It consists of 15 different tasks , each designed to assess intelligence , including working memory , arithmetic ability , spatial ability , and general knowledge about the world . The yields scores on four domains verbal , perceptual , working memory , and processing speed . The reliability of the test is high ( more than ) and it shows substantial construct validity . The is correlated highly with other IQ tests such as the , as well as with criteria of academic and life success , including college grades , measures of work performance , and occupational level . It also shows correlations with measures of everyday functioning among people with intellectual disabilities . The scale has also been adapted for preschool children in the form of the Primary and Preschool Scale of Edition ( and for older children and adolescents in the form of the Intelligence Scale for Edition ( Bias in Tests of Intelligence . Intelligence tests and psychological of intelligence have been heavily criticized since the for being biased in favor of , respondents and for being inadequate tools for measuring types of intelligence or talent . Intelligence changes with experience , and intelligence or scores do not that ability to change . What is considered smart varies culturally as well , and most intelligence tests do not take this variation into account . For example , in the West , being smart is associated with being quick . A person who answers a question the fastest is seen as the smartest , but in some cultures being smart is associated with considering an idea thoroughly before giving an answer . A out , contemplative answer is the best answer . This required video explores the history of intelligence tests , including their initial creation , their use to justify eugenics practices , and their inherent . 236 Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development
One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
Education Remember the ecological systems model ( 1979 ) that we explored in chapter one ?
This model helps us understand an individual by examining the in which the person lives and the direct and indirect on that person life . School becomes a very important component of children lives during middle and late childhood , and parents and the culture contribute to children educational experiences through their interaction with teachers and schools . Gender . The stereotypes held by parents and teachers can children in various domains . For example , teachers who hold the view that girls are better at reading ( Schwartz , 2015 ) or boys are better at math ( de la , 2013 ) often that their students performance in these areas mirror these stereotypes , despite the children actual ability , or the ability of children in the classrooms of teachers who do not hold such stereotypes . While not all children will internalize the views of others , those who do are more likely to show declines in their performance consistent with the stereotypes ( et , 2013 et , 2015 ) Parental Involvement in School . Parents vary in their level of involvement with their children schools . Teachers often complain that they have getting parents to participate in their child education and devise a variety of techniques to keep parents in touch with daily and overall progress . For example , parents may be required to sign a behavior chart each evening to be returned to school or may be given information about the school events through websites and newsletters . There are other factors that need to be considered when looking at parental involvement . To explore these , ask yourself if all parents who enter the school with concerns about their child will be received in the same way ?
2004 ) found that teachers seek a particular type of involvement from particular types of parents . While teachers thought they were open and neutral in their responses to parental involvement , in reality teachers were most receptive to support , praise , and agreement coming from parents who were most similar in race and social class with the teachers . Parents who criticized the school or its policies were less likely to be given voice . Parents who have higher levels of income , occupational status , and other qualities favored in society have family capital . This is 11 form of power that can be used to improve child education . Parents who do not have these qualities may it more to be effectively involved . The authors suggest that teachers closely examine their biases about different kinds of parents . Schools may also need to examine their ability to dialogue with parents about school policies in more open ways . Any efforts to improve effective parental involvement should address these concerns . Cultural Differences in the Classroom Bilingualism in Schools . In 2013 , approximately 20 of school aged children and adolescents spoke a language other than English in the home ( 2014 ) The majority of bilingual students speak Spanish , but the rest represent more than three hundred different language groups from around the world . In larger communities throughout the United States , it is therefore common for a single classroom to contain students from several different language Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development 237
backgrounds at the same time . In classrooms , as in other social settings , bilingualism exists in different forms and degrees . At one extreme are students who speak both English and another language at the other extreme are those who speak only limited versions of both languages . In between are students who speak their home ( or heritage ) language much better than English , as well as others who have partially lost their heritage language in the process of learning English ( Tse , 2001 ) Commonly , a student may speak a language satisfactorily , but be challenged by reading or writing it . That is , children can be bilingual without being . Whatever the case , each bilingual student brings unique strengths and poses unique challenges to teachers . The student who speaks both languages has a cognitive advantage . As you might suspect , and research , a fully bilingual student is in a better position to express concepts or ideas in more than one way , and to be aware of doing so ( Jimenez , Garcia , Pearson , 1995 Francis , 2006 ) Unfortunately , the bilingualism of many students is unbalanced in the sense that they are either still learning English , or else they have lost some earlier ability to use their original , heritage language . Losing one original language is a concern as research that language loss limits students ability to learn English as well or as quickly as they could do . Having a large vocabulary in a language has been shown to save time in learning vocabulary in a second language ( Hansen , 2002 ) Preserving the language is important if a student has impaired skill in all languages and therefore needs intervention or help from a specialist . Research has found , in such cases , that the specialist can be more effective if the specialist speaks and uses the language as well as English ( Kan , Duran , 2005 ) Cultures and ethnic groups differ not only in languages , but also in how languages are used . Since some of the patterns differ from those typical of middle class American classrooms , they can create misunderstandings between teachers and students ( 2001 Rogers , et , 2005 ) Consider these examples Speaking . In some cultures , it is considered polite or even intelligent not to speak unless you have something truly important to say . Chitchat , or talk that simply a personal tie between people , is considered immature or intrusive ( 2002 ) In a classroom , this habit can make it Image by unique ) easier for a child to learn not to interrupt others , but it can also make the child seem unfriendly . Eye contact . Eye contact varies by culture . In many African American and Latin American communities , it is considered appropriate and respectful for a child not to look directly at an adult who is speaking to them ( 1998 ) In classrooms , however , teachers often expect a lot of eye contact ( as in I want all eyes on me ! and may be tempted to construe lack of eye contact as a sign of indifference or disrespect . Social distance . Social distance varies by culture . In some cultures , it is common to stand relatively close when having a conversation in others , it is more customary to stand relatively far apart ( 2004 ) Problems may happen when a teacher and a student prefer different social distances . A student who expects a closer distance than does the teacher may seem overly familiar or intrusive , whereas one who expects a longer distance may seem overly formal or reserved . Wait time . Wait time varies by culture . Wait time is the gap between the end of one person comment or question and the next person reply or answer . In some cultures wait time is relatively long , as long as three or four seconds ( 1989 ) In others it is a negative gap , meaning that it is acceptable , even expected , for a person to interrupt before the end of the previous comment . In classrooms the wait time is customarily about one second after that , the teacher is likely to move on to another question or to another student . A student who habitually expects a wait time longer than one second may seem hesitant , and not be given many chances to speak . A student who expects a negative wait time , on the other hand , may seem overeager or even rude . 238 Intelligence , Motivational Development
Questions . In most cultures , questions are intended to gain information , and it is assumed that a person asking the question truly does not have the information requested ( 2003 ) In most classrooms , however , teachers regularly ask test questions , which are questions to which the teacher already knows the answer and that simply assess whether a student knows the answer as well ( Macbeth , 2003 ) The question How much is ?
for example , is a test question . If the student is not aware of this purpose , he or she may become confused , or think that the teacher is surprisingly ignorant . Worse yet , the student may feel that the teacher is trying deliberately to shame the student by revealing the students ignorance or incompetence to others . Preference for activities that are cooperative rather than competitive . Many activities in school are competitive , even when teachers try to the competition . Once past the year or second year of school , students often become attentive to who receives the highest marks on an assignment , for example , or who is the best athlete at various sports or whose contributions to class discussions gets the most verbal recognition from the teacher ( Johnson Johnson , 1998 ) A teacher deliberately organizes important activities or assignments competitively , as in Lets see who the math sheet . Classroom life can then become explicitly competitive , and the competitive atmosphere can interfere with cultivating Fig supportive relationships among students or between students and the teacher ( Cohen , 2004 ) For students who give priority to these relationships , competition can seem confusing at best and threatening at worst . A student may wonder , What sort of sharing or helping with answers is allowed ?
The answer to this question may be different depending on the cultural background of the student teacher . What the student views as cooperative sharing may be seen by the teacher as laziness , freeloading , or even cheating . What happened to No Child Left Behind ?
Children academic performance is often measured with the use of standardized tests . Achievement tests are used to measure what a child has already learned . Achievement tests are often used as measures of teaching effectiveness within a school setting and as a method to make schools that receive tax dollars ( such as public schools , charter schools , and private schools that receive vouchers ) accountable to the government for their performance . In 2001 , President Bush signed into effect Public Law , better known as the No Child Left Behind Act mandating that schools administer achievement tests to students and publish those results so that parents have an idea of their children performance . Additionally , the government would have information on the gaps in educational achievement between children from various social class , racial , and ethnic groups . Schools that showed gaps in these levels of performance were mandated to work toward narrowing these gaps . Educators criticized the policy for focusing too much on testing as the only indication of student performance . Target goals were considered unrealistic and set by the federal government rather than individual states . Because these requirements became increasingly unworkable for schools , changes to the law were requested . On December 12 , 2015 President Obama signed into law Every Student Succeeds Act ( ESSA ) United States Department of Education , 2017 ) This law is state Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development 239
driven and focuses on expanding educational opportunities and improving student outcomes , including in the areas of high school graduation , rates , and college attendance . The Development of Motivation are organized sets of beliefs people have about the nature of ability and what they themselves are capable of learning . They are convictions people come to hold about how competent they are and whether there are limits to how much more competent they can become . Where do come from ?
According to theories of mastery motivation , babies are born active and curious , ready to learn about the world and see how it works . As a result , infants are highly motivated and busy trying to make things love to create effects , for example , by waving their arms around , dropping spoons , splashing in the bath , pulling on earrings , and so on . Mastery motivation ( sometimes called intrinsic motivation ) is like a motor that sets in motion thousands of these exploratory interactions , and through them , babies learn an enormous amount about how to be effective in producing desired and preventing undesired outcomes . How do develop ?
As children learn about their environments , however , they are also learning something about themselves that they are competent , little people , capable of making things happen . They take these beliefs with them into other learning , like school , and such beliefs provide an underlying source of , determination , and persistence , especially when children run into problems or setbacks . This sense of and competence is called a mastery orientation , and it is one basis for children constructive engagement with challenging learning activities . When children with a mastery orientation make mistakes or ca solve problems right away , they roll up their sleeves and work harder , their concentration and strategizing increases , they turn on the effort and dont give up . As a result , they learn from their mistakes and from challenges and . They not only feel more competent and , they actually become more competent as a result . Over time , these experiences strengthen their mastery orientation . Do all children have a mastery orientation ?
No , unfortunately , many infants and young children grow up in environments where they do NOT have experiences of competence and control . Their parents are not responsive , they do not come when babies call , or comfort them when they are upset . Parents may even be downright hostile . Children soon learn that their actions dont matter , that they have no control over their little worlds . This is called a learned helplessness orientation , and it can be seen in infants as young as months old . What are the effects of a learned helplessness orientation ?
Children take helpless attitudes with them into learning , too . Unlike the mastery oriented children , however , children with a learned helplessness orientation react to obstacles or setbacks with helplessness , which means that they behave as if there is nothing they can do to solve the problem They become upset and anxious , they give up and even try . They avoid challenges and dont want to try anything new or . As a result , they dont learn very much . 240 Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development
These experiences undermine their even more . Over time , by avoiding challenge and giving up when the going gets tough , they learn less and start to lose ground . Eventually , they not only feel less competent , they actually become objectively less competent . It is a vicious cycle . What are the that underlie mastery and helpless ?
A researcher named Carol ( 2006 ) has done a lot of research on the kinds of that children ( and adults ) develop . She has argued that the experiences that we have in achievement ( like schools ) communicate to us the meaning of intelligence or According to her work , people tend to develop one of two kinds of based on their cumulative history of experiences Fixed Mindset ( aka an entity view of intelligence ) In this mindset , people view intelligence as an unchangeable thing ( an entity ) Each of us has a certain amount of ability or talent , and these traits are , meaning that they ca be expanded or improved . In this mindset , children are always trying to measure up , and they worry about revealing how big ( or small ) their intelligence actually is . Such children never want to let anyone see when they don understand something , so they don ask questions . Mistakes and failures are to be avoided because they show how dumb you are , and having to exert extra effort means that you must not be as naturally smart . Since every low performance is considered a shameful failure , individuals with this view tend to prefer tasks that they can already do well and to avoid those where they might have to try hard , or where they might make mistakes . Growth Mindset ( aka an incremental view of intelligence ) In this mindset , people view intelligence and abilities as expandable with effort . There is no amount of intelligence that people come with . Instead , there just the level of competence we have currently attained . Everyone can always get smarter , through effort , hard work , practice , and more effective strategies . In this view , effort expands the capacity to learn , and mistakes are an opportunity to learn even more . Such children do not need to worry about whether they measure up they focus instead on out how to take the next steps to improve their skills . Since failure is considered an opportunity to learn more , individuals with this view tend to prefer tasks that are challenging , even if it means they make mistakes at , because that is how they will learn the most . Why do matter ?
Even throughout adulthood , profoundly affect your life and the way you approach the world . For example , they affect your goals , how you strive to achieve them , and your motivations for pursuing them . They also impact your of success versus failure and your reactions to obstacles and challenges . Learning Goals ( associated with a growth mindset ) For those with a learning orientation , the goal is to acquire improve new skills and knowledge . In general , individuals who hold these views enjoy challenges , set high goals for themselves , exert high effort , and concentrate on the task at hand . When failure is encountered , they tend to view it as information about how they can improve their performance in the future rather than as an assault on their personal abilities . When dealing with obstacles , people with learning goals tend to respond with more determination and persistence , show less distress , and initiate more proactive patterns of action such as planning , studying , and practicing . Performance Goals ( associated with a mindset ) For those with a performance orientation , the goal is to gain approval from others ( the teacher ) by demonstrating one high ability or hiding one low ability . In general , individuals who hold these views often avoid challenge , set less goals for themselves , and are easily distracted . They tend to do just enough to get by and experience more thoughts . When dealing with these setbacks , people with performance goals tend to give up quickly , avoid help , ruminate on their failures , and give excuses for their performance . Can be changed ?
Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development I 241 Absolutely ! The key idea of a growth mindset is that we can develop our through effort . Change does happen over night , but beliefs and can slowly be changed . When you encounter challenge , what can be learned from it ?
If we can give up the desire to always appear to be smart and embrace the struggles and setbacks that are an essential part of the learning process ( and teach our students to do so as well ) we will be more likely to pursue more challenging and goals , and to become more competent over time . It important to note that having a growth mindset doesn mean you can never feel bad about things that have gone wrong . You can , for a little while . But , feeling bad does not need to keep you from taking the next , steps of out how to improve in the future and trying again . How can promote a growth mindset in my children or students ?
Feedback from parents and teachers can play a big role in the development of children beliefs about themselves . There is a lot of research about how to set up classrooms so that they promote learning goals and a growth mindset . Perhaps the most important thing is the mindset of the adult . If a teacher believes that children abilities are , then he or she focuses on intelligence , sorting children accordingly , and offering different opportunities to each group . Parents who label their children as this is my smart child and this is my artistic child communicate to both of them that their talents have been measured and that they should limit themselves to what they would be good at . Adults can help by providing a wide range of learning opportunities ( especially in areas that children are already good at ) accompanied by lots of encouragement for effort , hard work , and practice . When children encounter setbacks , they can from cooperative examination of their mistakes , supportive coaching , and suggestions about more effective strategies for learning . Even subtle things can make a difference Praising a child for getting a perfect score on an exam can send a message about the importance of getting the correct answer the time ( associated with a mindset ) whereas praising their effort can emphasize the importance of developing and learning ( associated with a growth mindset ) Likewise , expressing sympathy at a low performance or encouraging children to drop an activity when they do not excel right away suggests that there is nothing they can do ( associated with a mindset ) whereas mild irritation and support for continued practice can communicate the expectation that children can improve if they apply themselves ( associated with a growth mindset ) on your own development ( or the development of someone you know ) What tends to motivate you ?
Getting a good grade ?
Learning new things ?
How do you feel when you make a mistake ?
Like an idiot ?
Like you are about to learn something ?
do you cope with obstacles and setbacks ?
Do you give up ?
Do you try harder the next time ?
What are your beliefs about intelligence ?
Is it ?
242 Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development Can it change with effort ?
Can you your own development ?
In what ways could you be your own ( positive or negative ) social context ?
Supplemental Materials This video illustrates son stage of Industry . It features a old girl in who makes and sells bracelets with the proceeds going to support building black businesses those in need of . One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
This video shows an child Kid President who inspires people to be industrious and contribute to a better world . This article discusses the unique challenges of navigating the school system for students whose families do not subscribe to the White , middle class culture socialized in most schools . Cao . 1991 ) Students multiple worlds Negotiating the boundaries of family peer and school cultures . Anthropology Education Quarterly 22 . This article provides an overview of the history of research on children , as told by one of the researchers who uncovered the concept . 2017 ) The to children . Child Development Perspectives 11 ( This documentary by Shakti Butler explores the and the impact of the criminal legal system on populations . This article discusses how harsh discipline school policies impact Black girls . Carter Andrews . 2017 ) The Effects of Zero Tolerance Policies on Black Girls . Urban Education References , 1994 ) Psychological testing and assessment ( Needham Heights , MA and Bacon . Intelligence , Education , Motivational Development 243
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Puberty Cognition Adolescence is a period that begins with puberty and ends with the transition to adulthood ( lasting approximately from ages ) Physical changes associated with puberty are triggered by hormones . Changes happen at different rates in distinct parts of the brain and increase adolescents propensity for risky behavior . Cognitive changes include improvements in complex and abstract thought . Adolescents relationships with parents go through a period of in which adolescents become more autonomous . Peer relationships are important sources of support , but companionship during adolescence can also promote problem behaviors . Identity formation occurs as adolescents explore and commit to different roles and ideological positions . Because so much is happening in these years , psychologists have focused a great deal of attention on the period of adolescence . Physical Development in Adolescence Learning Objectives Physical Development in Adolescence Identify physical transformations in adolescence . Describe the effects associated with early and late onset of puberty , and how they differ for boys and girls . Identify three major brain developments in adolescence . Explain the in two of the brain developments and how it is responsible for certain adolescent behaviors . Explain why sleep is important for adolescents . Puberty is a period of rapid growth and sexual maturation . These changes begin sometime between age eight and fourteen . Girls begin puberty at around ten years of age and boys begin approximately two years later . Pubertal changes take around three to four years to complete . Adolescents experience an overall physical growth spurt . The growth proceeds from the extremities toward the torso . This is referred to as development . First the hands grow , then the arms , and the torso . The overall physical growth spurt results in inches of added height and 50 to 75 pounds of increased weight . The head begins to grow sometime after the feet have gone through their period of growth . Growth of the head is preceded by growth of the ears , nose , and lips . The difference in these patterns of growth result in adolescents appearing awkward and . As the torso grows , so do the internal organs . The heart and lungs experience dramatic growth during this period . During childhood , boys and girls are quite similar in height and weight . However , gender differences become apparent during adolescence . From approximately age ten to fourteen , the average girl is taller , but not heavier , than the average boy . After that , the average boy becomes both taller and heavier , although individual differences are certainly apparent . As adolescents physically mature , weight differences are more noteworthy than height differences . At eighteen years of Puberty Cognition 247
age , those that are heaviest weigh almost twice as much as the lightest , but the tallest teens are only about 10 taller than the shortest ( 2012 ) Both height and weight can certainly be sensitive issues for some teenagers . Most modern societies , and the teenagers in them , tend to favor relatively short women and tall men , as well as a somewhat thin body build , especially for girls and women . Yet , neither socially preferred height nor thinness is the destiny for most individuals . Being overweight , in particular , has become a common , serious problem in modern society due to the prevalence of diets high in fat and lifestyles low in activity ( 2004 ) The educational system has , unfortunately , contributed to the problem as well by gradually restricting the number of physical education classes in the past two decades . Average height and weight are also related somewhat to racial and ethnic background . In general , children of Asian background tend to be slightly shorter than children of European and North American background . The latter in turn tend to be shorter than children from African societies ( Tanner , 1990 ) Body shape differs slightly as well , though the differences are not always visible until after puberty . Asian background youth tend to have arms and legs that are a bit short relative to their torsos , and African background youth tend to have relatively long arms and legs . The differences are only averages , as there are large individual differences as well . Sexual Development Typically , this spurt in physical growth is followed by the development of sexual maturity . Sexual changes are divided into two categories Primary sexual characteristics and secondary sexual characteristics . Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs . For females , primary characteristics include growth of the uterus and menarche or the first menstrual period . The female , which are stored in the ovaries , are present at birth , but are immature . Each ovary contains about , but only 500 will become mature eggs ( Crooks , 2007 ) Beginning at puberty , one ovum ripens and is released about every 28 days during the menstrual cycle . Stress and higher percentage of body fat can bring menstruation at younger ages . For males , this includes growth of the testes , penis , scrotum , and or first ejaculation of semen . This occurs between 11 and 15 years of age . Secondary sexual characteristics are visible physical changes that signal sexual maturity but are not directly linked to reproduction . For females , breast development occurs around age 10 , although full development takes several years . Hips broaden , and pubic and underarm hair develops and also becomes darker and coarser . For males this includes broader shoulders and a lower voice as the larynx grows . Hair becomes coarser and darker , and hair growth occurs in the pubic area , under the arms and on the face . Effects of Pubertal Age . The age of puberty is getting younger time Wi for children throughout the world . According to et al . 2008 ) data are to suggest a trend toward an earlier breast development onset and menarche in girls . A century ago the average age of a girl period in the United States and Europe was 16 , while today it is around 13 . Because there is no clear marker of puberty for boys , it is harder to determine if boys are also maturing earlier . In addition to better nutrition , less positive reasons associated with early puberty for girls include increased stress , obesity , and endocrine disrupting chemicals . Cultural differences are noted with African American girls enter puberty the earliest . Hispanic girls start puberty the second earliest , while girls rank third in their age of starting puberty , and girls , on 248 Puberty Cognition
average , develop last . Although girls are typically the to develop , they are less likely to experience negative consequences of early puberty when compared to girls ( Weir , 2016 ) Research has demonstrated mental health problems linked to children who begin puberty earlier than their peers . For girls , early puberty is associated with depression , substance use , eating disorders , disruptive behavior disorders , and early sexual behavior ( 2013 ) Early maturing girls demonstrate more anxiety and less in their relationships with family and friends , and they compare themselves more negatively to their peers ( Weir , 2016 ) Problems with early puberty seem to be due to the mismatch between the child appearance and the way she acts and thinks . Adults especially may assume the child is more capable than she actually is , and parents might grant more freedom than the child age would indicate . For girls , the emphasis on physical attractiveness and sexuality is emphasized at puberty and they may lack effective coping strategies to deal with the attention they receive , especially from older boys . Additionally , mental health problems are more likely to occur when the child is among the in his or her peer group to develop . Because the preadolescent time is one of not wanting to appear different , early developing children stand out among their peer group and gravitate toward those who are older . For girls , this results in them interacting with older peers who engage in risky behaviors such as substance use and early sexual behavior ( Weir , 2016 ) Boys also see changes in their emotional functioning at puberty . According to , Harden , and ( 2010 ) while most boys experienced a decrease in depressive symptoms during puberty , boys who began puberty earlier and exhibited a rapid tempo , or a fast rate of change , actually increased in depressive symptoms . The effects of pubertal tempo were stronger than those of pubertal timing , suggesting that rapid pubertal change in boys may be a more important risk factor than the timing of development . In a further study to better analyze the reasons for this change , Harden , and ( 2012 ) found that both early maturing boys and rapidly maturing boys displayed in the quality of their peer relationships as they moved into early adolescence , whereas boys with more typical timing and tempo development actually experienced improvements in peer relationships . The researchers concluded that the transition in peer relationships may be especially challenging for boys whose pubertal maturation differs from those of others their age . Consequences for boys attaining early puberty were increased odds of cigarette , alcohol , or another drug use ( et , 2015 ) However , from the outside , early maturing boys are also often perceived as adjusted , popular , and tend to hold leadership positions . The Adolescent Brain The brain undergoes dramatic changes during adolescence . Although it does not get larger , it matures by becoming more interconnected and specialized ( 2015 ) The myelination and development of connections between neurons continues . This results in an increase in the white matter of the brain that allows the adolescent to make improvements in their thinking and processing skills . Different brain areas become myelinated at different times . For example , the brains language areas undergo myelination during the 13 years . Completed insulation of the axons consolidates these language skills but makes it more to learn a second language . With greater myelination , however , comes diminished plasticity as a myelin coating inhibits the growth of new connections ( Dobbs , 2012 ) Even as the connections between neurons are strengthened , synaptic pruning occurs more than during childhood as Puberty Cognition 249
the brain adapts to changes in the environment . This synaptic pruning causes the gray matter of the brain , or the cortex , to become thinner but more ( Dobbs , 2012 ) The corpus callosum , which connects the two hemispheres , continues to thicken allowing for stronger connections between brain areas . Additionally , the hippocampus becomes more strongly connected to the frontal lobes , allowing for greater integration of memory and experiences into our decision making . The limbic system , which regulates emotion and reward , is linked to the hormonal changes that occur at puberty . The limbic system is also related to novelty seeking and a shift toward interacting with peers . In contrast , the prefrontal cortex which is involved in the control of impulses , organization , planning , and making good decisions , does not fully develop until the . According to ( 2015 ) an important outcome of the early development of the limbic system combined with the later development of the prefrontal cortex is the mismatch in timing between the two . The approximately ten years that separate the development of these two brain areas can result in increases in risky behavior , poor decision making , and weak emotional control for the adolescent . When puberty begins earlier , this mismatch lasts even longer . The Limbic System Fornix Pineal gland Corpus callosum COMPONENTS IN THE CEREBRUM COMPONENTS IN Cingulate gyms THE DIENCEPHALON Anterior group of gyms Hippocampus thalamic nuclei Hypothalamus body Amygdaloid body Figure . staff ( 2014 ) Medical gallery of Medical 2014 . of Medicine ( Teens typically take more risks than adults and according to research it is because they weigh risks and rewards differently than adults do ( Dobbs , 2012 ) The brains sensitivity to the neurotransmitter dopamine peaks during adolescence , and dopamine is involved in reward circuits , so adolescents may judge that the possible rewards outweigh the risks . Adolescents respond especially strongly to social rewards during activities , and they prefer the company of others their same age . et al . 2011 ) found that peers sensitize brain regions associated with potential rewards . For example , adolescent drivers make more risky driving decisions when with friends to impress them , and teens are much 250 Puberty Cognition
more likely to commit crimes together in comparison to adults ( 30 and older ) who commit them alone ( et , 2017 ) In addition to dopamine , the adolescent brain is affected by which facilitates bonding and makes social connections more rewarding . With both dopamine and oxytocin engaged , it is no wonder that adolescents seek peers and excitement in their lives that could actually end up endangering them . Because of all the changes that occur in the brain during adolescence , the chances for abnormal development , including the emergence of mental illness , also rise . In fact , 50 of all mental illnesses occur by the age 14 and 75 occur by age 24 ( 2015 ) Additionally , during this period of development the adolescent brain is especially vulnerable to damage from drug exposure . For example , repeated exposure to marijuana can affect cellular activity in the system . Consequently , adolescents are more sensitive to the effects of repeated marijuana exposure ( Weir , 2015 ) However , researchers have also focused on the highly adaptive qualities of the adolescent brain which allow the adolescent to move away from the family towards the outside world ( Dobbs , 2012 , 2015 ) Novelty seeking and risk taking can generate positive outcomes including meeting new people and seeking out new situations . Separating from the family and moving into new relationships and different experiences are actually quite for adolescents or society . Optional Reading . Social cognitive development during adolescence . Tony Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , Volume , Issue , December 2006 , Pages , Adolescent Sleep According to the National Sleep Foundation ( 2016 ) to function their best , adolescents need about to 10 hours of sleep each night . The most recent Sleep in America poll in 2006 indicated that adolescents between sixth and twelfth grade were not getting the recommended amount of sleep . On average , adolescents slept only hours per night on school nights with younger adolescents getting more than older ones ( 84 hours for sixth graders and only hours for those in twelfth grade ) For the older adolescents , only about one in ten ( get an optimal amount of sleep , and those who do are more likely to experience negative consequences the following day . These include depressed mood , feeling tired or sleepy , being cranky or irritable , falling asleep in school , and drinking caffeinated beverages ( 2016 ) Additionally , sleep deprived adolescents are at greater risk for substance abuse , car crashes , poor academic performance , obesity , and a weakened immune system ( 2016 ) et al . 2019 ) found that sleep in adolescents is also a predictor of risky sexual behaviors . Reasons given for this include that those adolescents who stay out late , typically without parental supervision , are more likely to engage in a variety of risky behaviors , including risky sex , such as not using birth control or using substances sex . An alternative explanation for risky sexual behavior is that the lack of sleep increases impulsivity while negatively affecting processes . Puberty Cognition 251
Why don adolescents get adequate sleep ?
In addition to known environmental and social factors , including work , homework , media , technology , and socializing , the adolescent brain is also a factor . As adolescent go through puberty , their circadian rhythms change and push back their sleep time until later in the evening ( 2016 ) This biological change not only keeps adolescents awake at night , it makes it for them to wake up . When they are awakened too early , their brains do not function . are noted in attention , academic achievement , and behavior while increases in tardiness and absenteeism are also seen . To support adolescents later circadian rhythms , the Centers for 73 A rhythm ?
Disease Control and Prevention recommends that school begin no earlier than 8230 . Unfortunately , over 80 of American schools begin their day earlier than 8230 with an average start time of ( 2016 ) Psychologists and other professionals have been advocating for later start times , based on research demonstrating better student outcomes for later start times . More middle and high schools have changed their start times to better the sleep research . However , the logistics of changing start times and bus schedules are proving too for some schools , leaving many adolescent vulnerable to the negative consequences of sleep deprivation . et al . 2019 ) cautions that adolescents should a middle ground between sleeping too little during the school week and too much during the weekends . Keeping consistent sleep schedules of too little sleep will result in sleep deprivation but on weekends can affect the natural biological sleep cycle making it harder to sleep on weekdays Cognitive Development in Adolescence Learning Objectives Cognitive Development in Describe formal operational stage and the characteristics of formal operational thought . Identify the advances and limitations of formal operational thought . Describe . Describe adolescent egocentrism . Describe the limitations of adolescent thinking . Explain the reason school transitions are for adolescents . Describe the developmental mismatch between adolescent needs and school . Adolescence is a time of rapid cognitive development . Biological changes in brain structure and connectivity in the brain interact with increased experience , knowledge , and changing social demands to produce rapid cognitive growth . 252 Puberty Cognition
These changes generally begin at puberty or shortly thereafter , and some skills continue to develop as an adolescent ages . Development of executive functions , or cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior , are generally associated with the prefrontal cortex area of the brain . The thoughts , ideas , and concepts developed at this period of life greatly one future life and play a major role in character and personality formation . Improvements in basic thinking abilities generally occur in several areas during adolescence Attention . Improvements are seen in selective attention ( the process by which one focuses on one stimulus while tuning out another ) as well as divided attention ( the ability to pay attention to two or more stimuli at the same time ) Memory . Improvements are seen in working memory and memory . Processing speed . Adolescents think more quickly than children . Processing speed improves sharply between age and middle adolescence , levels off around age 15 , and then remains largely the same between late adolescence and adulthood . Formal Operational Thought In the last of the stages , the young adolescent becomes able to reason not only about tangible objects and events , but also about hypothetical or abstract ones . Hence , it has the name formal operational period when the individual can operate on forms or representations . This allows an individual to think and reason with a wider perspective . This stage of cognitive development , which called formal operational thought , marks a movement from an ability to think and reason from concrete visible events to an ability to think hypothetically and entertain if possibilities about the world . An individual can solve problems through abstract concepts and utilize hypothetical and deductive reasoning . Adolescents initially use trial and error to solve problems , but the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges . Hypothetical and Abstract Thinking One of the major advances of formal operational thought is the capacity to think of possibility , not just reality . Adolescents thinking is less bound to concrete events than that of children they can contemplate possibilities outside the realm of what currently exists . One manifestation of the adolescent increased facility with thinking about possibilities is the improvement of skill in deductive reasoning ( also called reasoning ) which leads to the development of hypothetical thinking . This provides the ability to plan ahead , see the future consequences of an action and to provide alternative explanations of events . It also makes adolescents more skilled debaters , as they can reason against a friends or parents position . Adolescents also develop a more sophisticated understanding of probability . Formal Operational Thinking in the Classroom School is a main contributor in guiding students towards formal operational thought . With students at this level , the teacher can pose hypothetical ( or ) problems What if the world had never discovered oil ?
or What European explorers had settled in California instead of on the East Coast of the United States ?
To answer such questions , students must use hypothetical reasoning , meaning that they must manipulate ideas that vary in several ways at once , and do so entirely in their minds . The hypothetical reasoning that concerned primarily involved problems . His studies of Puberty Cognition 253
formal operational thinking therefore often look like problems that middle or high school teachers pose in science classes . In one problem , for example , a young person is presented with a simple pendulum , onto which different amounts of weight can be hung ( 1958 ) The experimenter asks What determines how fast the pendulum swings the length of the string holding it , the weight attached to it , or the distance that it is pulled to the side ?
The young person is not allowed to solve this problem by with the materials themselves , but must reason a way to the solution mentally . To do so systematically , he or she must imagine varying each factor separately , while also imagining the other factors that are held constant . This kind of thinking requires facility at manipulating mental representations of the relevant objects and the skill that formal operations . As you might suspect , students with an ability to think hypothetically have an advantage in many kinds of school work by , they require relatively few props to solve problems . In this sense they can in principle be more than students who rely only on concrete a desirable quality in the opinion of most teachers . Note , though , that formal operational thinking is desirable but not for school success , and that it is far from being the only way that students achieve educational success . Formal thinking skills do not ensure that a student is motivated or , for example , nor does it guarantee other desirable skills . The fourth stage in theory is really about a particular kind of formal thinking , the kind needed to solve problems and devise experiments . Since many people do not normally deal with such problems in the normal course of their lives , it should be no surprise that research that many people never achieve or use formal thinking fully or consistently , or that they use it only in selected areas with which they are very familiar ( Case , 1996 ) For teachers , the limitations of ideas suggest a need for additional theories about cognitive that focus more directly on the social and interpersonal issues of childhood and adolescence . Propositional thought . The appearance of more systematic , abstract thinking also allows adolescents to comprehend higher order abstract ideas , such as those inherent in puns , proverbs , metaphors , and analogies . Their increased facility permits them to appreciate the ways in which language can be used to convey multiple messages , such as satire , metaphor , and sarcasm . Children younger than age nine often can not comprehend sarcasm at all ) This also permits the application of advanced reasoning and logical processes to social and ideological matters such as interpersonal relationships , politics , philosophy , religion , morality , friendship , faith , fairness , and honesty . This newfound ability also allows adolescents to take other perspectives in more complex ways , and to be able to better think through others points of view . refers to thinking about This often involves monitoring one own cognitive activity during the thinking process . Adolescents are more aware of their own thought processes and can use mnemonic devices and other strategies to think and remember information more . provides the ability to plan ahead , consider the future consequences of an action , and provide alternative explanations of events . Relativism . The capacity to consider multiple possibilities and perspectives often leads adolescents to the conclusion that nothing is everything appears to be relative . As a result , teens often start questioning everything that they had previously such as parent and family values , authority , religious practices , school rules , and political events . They may even start questioning things that took place when they were younger , like adoption or parental divorce . It is common for parents to feel that adolescents are just being argumentative , but this behavior signals a normal phase of cognitive development . Adolescent Egocentrism 254 Puberty Cognition
Adolescents newfound abilities also have an impact on their social cognition , as it results in increased introspection , and intellectualization . Adolescents are much better able to understand that people do not have complete control over their mental activity . Being able to introspect may lead to forms of egocentrism , or , in adolescence . Adolescent egocentrism is a term that David used to describe the phenomenon of adolescents inability to distinguish between their perception of what others think about them and what people actually think in reality . theory on adolescent egocentrism is drawn from theory on cognitive developmental stages , which argues that formal operations enable adolescents to construct imaginary situations and abstract thinking . Accordingly , adolescents are able to conceptualize their own thoughts and conceive of other peoples thoughts . However , pointed out that adolescents tend to focus mostly on their own perceptions , especially on their behaviors and appearance , because of the physiological metamorphosis they experience during this period . This leads to adolescents belief that other people are as attentive to their behaviors and appearance as they are themselves ( 1967 Schwartz , Maynard , 2008 ) According to , adolescent egocentrism results in two distinct problems in thinking the imaginary audience and the personal fable . These likely peak at age , along with in general . Imaginary audience is a term that used to describe the phenomenon that an adolescent anticipates the reactions of other people to in actual or impending social situations . argued that this kind of anticipation could be explained by the adolescent conviction that others are as admiring or as critical of them as they are of themselves . As a result , an audience is created , as the adolescent believes that he or she will be the focus of attention . However , more often than not the audience is imaginary because in actual social situations individuals are not usually the sole focus of public attention . believed that the construction of imaginary audiences would partially account for a wide variety of typical adolescent behaviors and experiences and imaginary audiences played a role in the that emerges in early adolescence . However , since the audience is usually the adolescent own construction , it is privy to his or her own knowledge of . According to , the notion of imaginary audience helps to explain why adolescents usually seek privacy and feel reluctant to reveal is a reaction to the feeling that one is always on stage and constantly under the critical scrutiny of others . also suggested that adolescents have another complex set of beliefs They are convinced that their own feelings are unique and they are special and immortal . Personal fable is the term used to describe this notion , which is the complement of the construction of an imaginary audience . Since an adolescent usually fails to differentiate their own perceptions and those of others , they tend to believe that they are of importance to so many people ( the imaginary audiences ) that they come to regard their feelings as something special and unique . They may feel that they are the only ones who have experienced strong and diverse emotions , and therefore others could never understand how they feel . This uniqueness in ones emotional experiences reinforces the adolescent belief of invincibility , especially to death . This adolescent belief in personal uniqueness and invincibility becomes an illusion that they can be above some of the rules , constraints , and laws that apply to other people even consequences such as death ( called the invincibility fable ) This belief that one is invincible removes any impulse to control one behavior ( Lin , 2016 ) Therefore , adolescents will engage in risky behaviors , such as drinking and driving or unprotected sex , and feel they will not suffer any negative consequences . Intuitive and Analytic Thinking emphasized the sequence of cognitive developments that unfold in four stages . Others suggest that thinking does not develop in sequence , but instead , that advanced logic in adolescence may be by intuition . Cognitive psychologists often refer to intuitive and analytic thought as the model the notion that humans have two distinct networks for processing information ( 2013 . Intuitive thought is automatic , unconscious , and fast , and it is more experiential and emotional . In contrast , analytic Puberty Cognition 255
thought is deliberate , conscious , and rational ( logical ) Although these systems interact , they are distinguishable ( 2013 ) Intuitive thought is easier , quicker , and more commonly used in everyday life . The discrepancy between the maturation of the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex , as discussed in the section on adolescent brain development earlier in this module , may make teens more prone to emotional intuitive thinking than adults . As adolescents develop , they gain in thinking ability but may sometimes regress , with social context , education , and experiences becoming major . Simply put , being smarter as measured by an intelligence test does not advance or anchor cognition as much as having more experience , in school and in life ( 2014 ) Because most injuries sustained by adolescents are related to risky behavior ( alcohol consumption and drug use , reckless or distracted driving , and unprotected sex ) a great deal of research has been conducted to examine the cognitive and emotional processes underlying adolescent . In addressing this issue , it is important to distinguish three facets of these questions ( whether adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behaviors ( prevalence ) whether they make decisions similarly or differently than adults ( cognitive processing perspective ) or ( whether they use the same processes but weigh facets differently and thus arrive at different conclusions . Behavioral making theory proposes that adolescents and adults both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action . However , research has shown that adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards , particularly social rewards , than do adults . Adolescents value social warmth and friendship , and their hormones and brains are more attuned to those values than to a consideration of consequences ( Crone , 2012 ) Some have argued that there may be evolutionary to an increased propensity for in adolescence . For example , without a willingness to take risks , teenagers would not have the motivation or necessary to leave their family of origin . In addition , from a population perspective , is an advantage to having a group of individuals willing to take more risks and try new methods , the more conservative elements typical of the received knowledge held by older adults . Education in Adolescence Adolescents spend more waking time in school than in any other context ( Eccles , 2011 ) Secondary education denotes the school years after elementary school ( known as primary education ) and before college or university ( known as tertiary education ) Adolescents who complete primary education ( learning to read and write ) and continue on through secondary and tertiary education tend to also have better health , wealth , and family life ( 1998 ) Because the average age of puberty has declined over the years , middle schools were created for grades or through as a way to distinguish between early adolescence and late adolescence , especially because these adolescents differ biologically , cognitively and emotionally and have different needs . 256 I Puberty Cognition
Figure . Middle school transition involves new freedom , responsibility , and social pressure . Transition to middle school is stressful and the transition is often complex . When students transition from elementary to middle school , many students are undergoing physical , intellectual , social , emotional , and moral changes as well ( Parker , 2013 ) Research suggests that early adolescence is an especially sensitive developmental period ( et , 2012 ) Some students mature faster than others . Students who are developmentally behind typically experience more stress than their counterparts ( US . Department of Education , 2008 ) Consequently , they may earn lower grades and display decreased academic motivation , which may increase the rate of dropping out of school ( US . Department of Education , 2008 ) For many middle school students , academic achievement slows down and behavioral problems can increase . Regardless of a student gender or ethnicity , middle school can be challenging . Although young adolescents seem to desire independence , they also need protection , security , and structure ( Brighton , 2007 ) Cornell , and ( 2014 ) found that bullying increases in middle school , particularly in the year . Just when egocentrism is at its height , students are worried about being thrown into an environment of independence and responsibility . Additionally , unlike elementary school , concerns arise regarding structural students typically go from having one primary teacher in elementary school to multiple different teachers during middle school . They are expected to get to and from classes on their own , manage time wisely , organize and keep up with materials for multiple classes , be responsible for all classwork and homework from multiple teachers , and at the same time develop and maintain a social life ( Meece Eccles , 2010 ) Students are trying to build new friendships and maintain ones they already have . As noted throughout this module , peer acceptance is particularly important . Another aspect to consider is technology . Typically , adolescents get their cell phone at about age 11 and , simultaneously , they are also expected to research items on the Internet . Puberty Cognition 257
Social media use and texting increase dramatically and the research both costs and to this use ( et , 2018 ) Fit . A useful perspective that explains much of the faced by early adolescents in middle school , and the declines found in classroom engagement and academic achievement , is theory ( Eccles , Buchanan , 1993 ) This theory highlights the developmental mismatch between the needs of adolescents and the characteristics of the middle school context . At the same time that teens are developing greater needs for cognitive challenges , autonomy , independence , and stronger relationships outside the family , schools are becoming more rigid , controlling , and unstimulating . The middle school environment is experienced as less supportive than elementary school , with multiple teachers and less closeness and warmth in relationships . Disciplinary concerns can make classrooms more controlling , while standardized testing and organizational constraints make curriculum more uniform , and less challenging and interesting . Existing relationships with peers are often disrupted and students themselves in a larger and more complex social context . This poor between the needs of students at certain stages and their school is more pronounced over school transitions , but continues all throughout secondary education . As adolescents enter into high school , their continued cognitive development allows them to think abstractly , analytically , hypothetically , and logically , which is all formal operational thought . High school emphasizes formal thinking in attempt to prepare graduates for college where analysis is required . Overall , high school graduation rates in the United States have increased steadily over the past decade , reaching percent in 2016 after four years in high school ( 2017 ) Additionally , many students in the United States do attend college . Unfortunately , though , about half of those who go to college leave without completing a degree ( et , 2016 ) Those that do earn a degree , however , do make more money and have an easier time employment . The key here is understanding adolescent development and supporting teens in making decisions about college or alternatives to college after high school . Academic achievement during adolescence is predicted by factors that are interpersonal ( parental engagement in adolescents education ) intrinsic motivation ) and institutional ( school quality ) Academic achievement is important in its own right as a marker of positive adjustment during adolescence but also because academic achievement sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities . The most serious consequence of school failure , particularly dropping out of school , is the high risk of unemployment or underemployment in adulthood that follows . High achievement can set the stage for college or future vocational training and opportunities . References , Cornell , 2014 ) A longitudinal investigation of self and peer reports of bullying victimization across middle school . Psychology in the Schools , 51 ( Brighton , 2007 ) Coming of age The education and development of young adolescents . OH National Middle School Association . Case , and , 1996 . The role of central conceptual structures in the development of thought . of the Society for Research in Child Development , 61 , Serial No . 246 ) Chem , Albert , 2011 ) Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain reward circuitry . Developmental Science , 14 ( 258 Puberty Cognition
, 2018 ) A longitudinal study of texting trajectories . Child Development , 89 ( Crone , 2012 ) Understanding adolescence as a period of engagement and goal . Nature Reviews Neuroscience , 13 ( Crooks , 2007 ) Our sexuality ( Belmont , CA . Dobbs , 2012 ) Beautiful brains . National Geographic , 220 ( 36 . Eccles , Buchanan , 1993 ) Development during adolescence The impact of on young adolescents experiences in schools and in families . American Psychologist , 48 ( Eccles , 2011 ) Schools as developmental during adolescence . Journal of Research on Adolescence , 21 ( 1967 ) Egocentrism in adolescence . Child Development , 38 , Lee , Swan , 2008 ) Examination of US data from 1940 to 1994 for secular trends panel . Pediatrics , 121 , doi . Tanner , 1990 ) Worldwide variation in human growth ( edition ) New York Cambridge University Press . 2017 , May ) Is the high school graduation rate inflated ?
No , study says ( Web log post ) Education Week . 2015 ) The amazing teen brain . Scientific American , 312 ( A . 2013 ) Pubertal timing and the development of psychopathology in adolescence and beyond . Hormones and Behavior , 64 , 1958 ) The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence . NY Basic Books . Hussar , de Brey , Wang , 2016 ) The condition of education 2016 . Washington , Department of Education , National Center for Education Statistics . 2001 ) Analytic and heuristic processing on adolescent reasoning and . Child Development , 72 ( 2014 ) and biases during adolescence Developmental reversals and individual differences . In Henry ( Ed . The developmental psychology of reasoning and decision making , NY Psychology Press . 2013 ) Reasoning . Ed . The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology . Vol . New York NY Oxford University Press . Linn , 2016 ) Risky behaviors Integrating adolescent egocentrism with the theory of planned behavior . Review of General Psychology , 20 ( Hughes , Way , 2012 ) Academic adjustment across middle school The role of public regard and parenting . Developmental Psychology , 48 ( Meece , Eccles , 2010 ) Handbook on research on schools , schooling , and human development . New York , NY . Puberty Cognition 259
, Harden , A . 2010 ) Developments tortoise and hare Pubertal timing , pubertal tempo , and depressive symptoms in boys and girls . Developmental Psychology , Harden , A . 2012 ) Peer relationships and depressive symptomatology in boys at puberty . Developmental Psychology , 48 ( National Sleep Foundation . 2016 ) Teens and sleep . Retrieved from sleep topics sleep Parker , 2013 ) Understanding and supporting young adolescents during the transition into middle school . In Andrews ( Ed . Research to guide practice in middle grades education , OH Association for Middle Level Education . 1998 ) Adolescent school failure Failure to thrive in adolescence . Pediatrics in Review , 19 ( Ryan , Shim , A . 2013 ) Changes in academic adjustment and relational across the transition to middle school . Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 42 , Schwartz , Maynard , 2008 ) Adolescent egocentrism A contemporary view . Adolescence , 43 , 2012 ) Educational psychology . Retrieved from , et al . 2018 ) Around the world , adolescence is a time of heightened sensation seeking and immature . Developmental Science , 21 , 2004 ) Generation extra large . Basic Books . Tucker , Shih , 2019 ) Associations of longitudinal sleep trajectories with risky sexual behavior during late adolescence . Health Psychology . Retrieved from ?
Department of Education Mentoring Resource Center ( 2008 ) Making the transition to middle school How mentoring can help . Mentoring Resource Center Fact Sheet , No . 24 . Retrieved from storage . 2016 ) Young and sleep deprived . Monitor on Psychology , 47 ( Weir , 2015 ) Marijuana and the developing brain . Monitor on Psychology , 46 ( 10 ) Weir , 2016 ) The risks of earlier puberty . Monitor on Psychology , 47 ( OER Attribution Lifespan Development A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a and adapted by Ellen Skinner Dan Grimes , Portland State University Lifespan Development Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution International and adapted by Ellen Skinner Dan Grimes , Portland State University Additional written materials by Dan Grimes Brandy Brennan , Portland State University and are licensed under a 260 Puberty Cognition
Media Productions , is licensed under a BY Attribution license 640 Bruce is licensed under a BY Attribution ) license while studying WA is licensed under a ( Attribution ) license 22263040962 5736478394 is licensed under a Attribution license Puberty Cognition 261
Identity Development during Adolescence Social and Emotional Development during Adolescence Learning Objectives Social and Emotional Development in Adolescence Summarize the primary psychosocial task of adolescence identity versus role confusion . What are the four identity statuses Marcia posits ?
In what domains does identity development take place ?
What is the nature of the typical relationship during adolescence ?
Discuss the importance of autonomy and attachment in relationships . Explain the importance of peers in adolescence . Developmental Task of Adolescence Identity Role Confusion believed that the primary psychosocial task of adolescence was establishing an identity . As formal thinking unfolds , bringing with it adolescent and the ability to on ones own attributes behaviors , teens often struggle with the question Who am I ?
This includes questions regarding their appearance , vocational choices and career aspirations , education , relationships , sexuality , political and social views , personality , interests . saw this as a period of uncertainty , confusion , exploration , experimentation , and learning regarding identity and one life path . suggested that most adolescents experience psychological moratorium , where teens put on hold commitment to an identity while exploring their options . The culmination of this exploration is a more coherent view of oneself . Those who are unsuccessful at resolving this stage may either withdraw further into isolation or become lost in the crowd . However , more recent research , suggests that few leave the adolescent with identity achievement , and that for most of us the process of identity formation continues all during the years emerging and young adulthood ( Cote , 2006 ) Exploration and commitment . Expanding on theory , James Marcia ( 2010 ) two key processes identity development exploration and commitment . By exploration , he meant the processes though which youth imagine , consider , try out , and try on different possible facets of their identity , experimenting with a variety of attitudes , looks , activities , friends , school subjects , and hobbies . If you happen to have photos of yourself at ages 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , you may see some pretty big changes in the way you were dressing and acting at those ages . Those different personas you were trying on , that would be a process of exploration . Exploration of different facets of identity may also be staggered over the adolescent , emerging adulthood , and early adult years ( and beyond ) as you initially work on appearance , attitude , and friendships , and then move on to romantic relationships and vocation . Commitment refers to a consolidation and acceptance of who you truly are , as you begin to recognize , understand , and feel comfortable with your authentic self , both in its individual facets ( of personality , sexual orientation , racial , gender identity , and so on ) and in an overall picture of how each of those dimensions of identity together , 262 Identity Development during Adolescence
complement each other , and are integrated ( eg , how your sexual orientation with your religious beliefs ) You can see why the process of commitment is an ongoing work in progress for so many years ! Marcia four identity statuses that represent the four possible combinations of the dimensions of commitment and exploration ( see Table ) You can think of them as snapshots of where adolescents and young adults are in the identity development process at any given moment . Table Marcia Four Identity Statuses Exploration Commitment to an identity Absent Present Absent Identity Diffusion Identity Moratorium Present Identity Foreclosure Identity Achievement adapted from Lally , 2019 The least mature status , and one common in many children , is identity diffusion . Identity diffusion is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored their options , nor made a commitment to an identity . Those who persist in this identity throughout adolescence and young adulthood have basically not taken on the crucial developmental task of grappling with who they are and who they want to become , so they run the risk of drifting aimlessly with little connection to those around them or having little sense of purpose in life . Those in identity foreclosure have made a commitment to an identity without having explored the options . Some parents may make these decisions for their children and do not grant their teen the opportunity to participate in these choices . In other instances , teens may strongly identify with parents and others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps . The potential problems with foreclosure are twofold . On the one hand , without active exploration , the adolescent or young adult may have missed the opportunity to really get to know their passions , preferences , and interests in life . Without this information , they may make a commitment to a ( vocational , sexual , political , etc . identity that is not really a good for their true self . On the other hand , even if the identity to which they are committed is authentic , it is possible that , without active and intentional consideration of multiple alternatives , their commitment may not be as strong or durable . Identity moratorium is a status that describes those who are activity exploring in an attempt to construct an identity but have yet to make any commitment . This can Figure Identity development be an anxious and emotionally tense time as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores various beliefs . Nothing is certain and there are many questions , but few answers . As discussed later , identity development is a highly social process , by parents , extended family , peers , friends , classmates , teachers , coaches , mentors , social media , and societal messages . For many adolescents , aspects of their identity are not necessarily viewed as acceptable by these social partners . For example , an adolescent who has a passion for art and theatre is part of an extended family who expects her to go into medicine or business . Such between internal information about who you feel you really are and what the social world wants you to be can extend the period of moratorium for aspects of identity development , while the adolescent or young adult attempts to negotiate and reconcile these . Identity Development during Adolescence 263
Identity achievement refers to those who after exploration have made , commitment . This is a long process and , as mentioned previously , is not typically achieved by the end of adolescence . Changes in identity status . During high school and the college years , teens and young adults move from identity diffusion and foreclosure toward moratorium and achievement . The biggest gains in the development of identity typically take place in college , as college students are exposed to a greater variety of career choices , lifestyles , and beliefs . Exposure to so many alternatives is likely to spur questions regarding identity . A great deal of the identity work we do in adolescence and young adulthood is about values and goals , as we strive to articulate a personal vision or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the future ( 2013 ) During these later periods , emerging adults also focus some of their energy in the task of identity development on achieving more coherence and integration among the different facets of ones identity , striving to passions ( like music ) into a vocation that will support them , or a balance between family , school , and work . Even after an identity has been established , life events during adulthood and even into old age can reignite the process of identity development . For example , when a man loses his job and it seems as if that line of work is being phased out , he may begin the process of reimagining a new vocational identity . Or when a children move out of the house , she may begin to rekindle the parts of her identity that were fascinated by creative writing or building a business . Retirement is a common time for couples to out who they want to be and what they want to do in the next chapter of their lives . Because identity development can be considered an ongoing process that we revisit and at many times in our lives , researchers have given this process its own name MAMA cycling or moving back and forth between moratorium and achievement . This cycling between exploration and achievement is common in identity formation ( 1987 ) and considered a normal and healthy process of development . What is Identity ?
One of the fascinating things about human psychology is our ability to on ourselves as objects of our own thinking . We have seen how this ability makes it possible , starting in early childhood , to have thoughts about the self and to develop a that includes the I self and the Me self . In adolescence , our thinking about ourselves begins to involve more abstract categories and characteristics . Identity occurs in multiple areas of our life . These domains include academic , religious , ethnic , and social identity . Identity encompasses our personal preferences and characteristics and our group memberships . Identity has been described as the individuals answer to the question , Who am I ?
It has been depicted as a mental structure or representation of the self . But identity is only partially about who and what we are . It also includes what we do , what we like , and even how we feel . So identity is more than a mental model . It is full of meanings , emotions , desires , and goals . Identity is only partially stable , because it is also across situations and malleable over time . Identity is somewhat like a thing and a lot like a process . It is our conceptualization of a network of associations and mental events that we use to think about and talk about ourselves and other people . The multiple personal and social identities we hold play out in a variety of domains and situations in complex ways . One way in which we incorporate the social world into our views of ourselves is through our in the social hierarchies in our society . This suggests that a useful approach to understanding this complexity and unraveling some of the is to examine identity in terms of the intersections between aspects of our positions , such as where we fall in terms of race , gender , and class 264 Identity Development during Adolescence
( Crenshaw , 1989 1991 ) From this perspective , it is the intersection among our positions on these hierarchies ( as well as others , such as immigrant and disability status , age , and so on ) that our experiences ( the conditions under which we live , the opportunities we enjoy , and how we are treated ) as well as how we see ourselves ( based in part on society messages about our value ) For example , the experiences of black women may be different in many ways from those of black men . And the experiences of rich black women will be different from those lower in socioeconomic status . These experiences involve overlapping and interacting systems of social structure and meaning , where layers of identity are not just additive or compounded , but instead create niches that are emergent and unique ( as well as changing as society prejudices and hierarchies shift ) The approach has been applied in research on identity processes , antecedents , and consequences , and has resulted in many fascinating and unexpected empirical . Some researchers who study the self insist that it is not a entity or trait at all , but instead a dynamic system that is held in place partly by our beliefs that it is real . From this perspective , a possible direction for identity development would be to get over or transcend the idea of a unitary isolated self , and expand one dynamic presence to connect with other people , the natural world , and the past and future . What a idea ! Facets of Identity Development Developmental psychologists have researched multiple different areas of identity development . Some of the main areas include identity refers to how people come to terms with who they are based on their ethnic racial ancestry . The task of ethnic identity formation involves sorting out and resolving positive and negative feelings and attitudes about one own ethnic group and about other groups and identifying one place in relation to both ( 2006 , 119 ) When groups differ in status in a culture , those from the group are typically ( cognizant of the customs and values of those from the dominant culture . The reverse is rarely the case . This makes identity far less salient for members of the dominant culture . In the United States , those of Figure European ancestry engage in less exploration of racial identity , than do those of ancestry ( 1989 ) However , according to the US . Census ( 2012 ) more than 40 of Americans under the age of 18 are from ethnic and racial minorities . For many ethnic and racial minority teens , discovering one identity is an important part of identity formation . Multiracial Identity . Ethnic minorities must wrestle with the question of how , and to what extent , they will identify with the culture of their family and with the dominant culture of the surrounding society . 2006 ) suggests that people may handle this negotiation in different ways . Some may keep these identities separate , others may combine them in some way , while others may reject some of them . identity means the individual sees himself or herself as part of both the ethnic minority group and the larger society . Those who are multiracial , that is whose parents come from two or more ethnic or racial groups , have a more challenging task in current society . In some cases , their appearance may be ambiguous . This can lead to others constantly asking Identity Development during Adolescence 265
them to categorize themselves . 2006 ) notes that the process of identity formation may start earlier and take longer to accomplish in those who are not . For both multicultural and multiracial adolescents , the task of identity development is made more complicated by society current in recognizing these identities as legitimate . Some adolescents are continually asked No , which one are you really ?
or are categorized according to their phenotypic appearance . Sometimes their identity is challenged if they do not embody the prototype of a category ( are not in their heritage language ) Luckily , society is starting to shift in its understanding of , and identities , as seen , for example , in questions about ethnicity , where people are allowed to check all that apply instead of being forced to select only one category . It is also important to note that those who do commit to an identity may periodically reexamine the issues of race and ethnicity . It is especially common to do so when you have children , at which time you may on the values , history , and traditions of your ethnic and racial heritage that you wish to pass on to your children . This cycling between exploration and achievement is common not only for racial and ethnic identity formation , but in other aspects of identity development ( 1987 ) and as mentioned previously is referred to as MAMA cycling or moving back and forth between moratorium and achievement . Gender identity Acquiring a gender identity is becoming an increasingly prolonged task as attitudes and norms regarding gender keep changing . The roles appropriate for males and females are evolving , and the lack of a gender binary allow adolescents more freedom to explore various aspects of gender . Some teens may foreclose on a gender identity as a way of dealing with this uncertainty , and they may adopt more stereotypic male or female roles ( Sinclair , 2013 ) For youth who attend college , exposure to a wider variety of options and role models may allow them to questions about their own gender identity , initiating further exploration and new commitments . Sexual identity According to Carroll ( 2016 ) by age 14 most adolescents become interested in intimate relationships , and they may begin sexual experimentation . Many adolescent feel pressure to express interest in relationships , even if they are not ready to do so . This pressure can be especially stressful for those adolescents who are gay , lesbian , bisexual or questioning their sexual identity . Many adolescents struggle with negative peer and family reactions during their exploration . A lack of parental acceptance can have especially adverse effects on the gay , lesbian or bisexual adolescent emerging sexual identity , and can result in feelings of , depression , and alienation . In cases where families are unsupportive , adolescents may seek support from online communities or wait until they leave home to work on this aspect of their identity . In contrast , adolescents whose families and peers support open exploration of their sexual identities have better psychological and mental health outcomes . Vocational identity . While adolescents in earlier generations envisioned themselves as working in a particular job , and often worked as an apprentice or in such occupations as teenagers , this is rarely the case today . Vocational identity takes longer to develop , as most of today occupations require skills and knowledge that will require additional education or are acquired on the job itself . In addition , many of the jobs held by teens are not in occupations that most teens will seek as adults . Rapid changes in the nature of employment , and the fact that most adults will hold multiple jobs over their working lives , also suggest that this identity may be negotiated several times over the lifespan . Religious identity . Adolescence is a time when teens normatively question their participation in religious practices . At the same time , most teens end up adopting religious views that are similar to those of their families ( Longo , 2012 ) Most teens may question customs , practices , or ideas in the faith of their parents , but few completely reject the religion of their families . Political identity . The political ideology of teens is also by their parents political beliefs . A new trend in the century is a decrease in party among adults . Many adults do not align themselves with either the Democratic or Republican parties but view themselves as more of an Their teenage children are 266 Identity Development during Adolescence
often following suit or become more apolitical ( Cote , 2006 ) Trends in voting among young adults suggest that most of them are questioning whether it is meaningful to participate in the current political system . Negative Identity . A negative identity is the adoption of norms and values that are the opposite of ones family and culture , and it is assumed to be one of the more problematic outcomes of identity development in young people ( 2019 ) Those with a negative identity hold dichotomous beliefs , and consequently divide the world into two categories ( friend or foe , good or bad ) et al . suggest that this may be because teens with a negative identity can not integrate information and beliefs that exist in both their inner and outer world . In addition , those with a negative identity are generally hostile and cynical toward society , often because they do not trust the world around them . These beliefs may lead teens to engage in delinquent and criminal behavior and prevent them from engaging in more positive acts that could be to society Developmental Processes in the Task of Identity Formation As we discussed in the class on gender identity , all these features of identity have their start in early childhood , as children are taught to make distinctions among categories ( male female or Black ) and then locate themselves among those categories . During early childhood , these processes , sometimes called , are largely declarative and descriptive , as children out who belongs to which club and the concrete differences in club members appearance , behaviors , activities , and equipment ( toys , games ) Although children notice differences in valence , status , and privileges , it is as if youngsters are just taking notes and not necessarily on or evaluating the categories to which they have been assigned or the differences in treatment they observe and experience . However , as the cognitive developments of formal operations begin to emerge during adolescence , thinking becomes more abstract , psychological , complex , and integrated . With increased skills at perspective taking , adolescents are more able to see themselves through the eyes of imagined others , which also makes them more , and prone to social comparison . It is as if , during the shift to formal operations , adolescents wake up to these features and categories of identity , and how they are viewed in society . This newfound awareness them with deeply personal meaning , value , and emotion . Depending on the messages that children and adolescents have received about their attributes and the categories to which they belong , the process of negotiating an identity can be more or less complex and rocky . Although the development of an identity of ones own seems like a very personal and private task , it is also highly social , shaped as much by external and interpersonal factors as it is by internal ones . In fact , we can say that this task is negotiated at the nexus between internal and external forces . Internally , adolescents have access to their history of interests , preferences , impulses , proclivities , temperament , and intrinsic motivations , in other words , all the interactions that provide them with information about the nature of their genuine and authentic self . These experiences are now evaluated more analytically and translated into psychological constructs , like personality traits or values , that are nominated for inclusion into a personal identity . At the same time , this information , much of which is based on social interactions and experiences , is through the lens of the messages adolescents receive about the salience and value of these attributes and identity categories . Society even has opinions about what categories are available for use in constructing identities , for example , as mentioned previously , society is only just catching up with categories like multiracial or multicultural , and multiple genders and . Close relationships , including relationships with parents , siblings , and other family members , play a major role and as children approach and go through adolescence , peers , friends , and classmates play increasingly important roles as well . Strands of identity development . The task of identity development is complex because it involves the integration of three different strands . First , adolescents are seeking an identity that is authentic , that is , that reflects their true and genuine self . From this perspective , their identity needs to correspond with information they are receiving about themselves from Identity Development during Adolescence 267
deep temperamental , emotional , and motivational what they like ( to do , play , learn about , read , etc . how they spontaneously react to various situations , their interests and passions , their gifts and faults . To be satisfying , a personal identity needs to be anchored in what is real and true about an adolescent individuality . This strand could be labeled Who I discover myself to be , with the goal of To thine own self be true . How Do I Know What My Authentic Self Really Is ?
It is not easy to come to know our true selves . By the time we start thinking about these questions in adolescence , we already have many years and hundreds of thousands of experiences incorporated into our view of who we are . These include information from our true selves , but they are wrapped in layers of messages and social evaluations we have experienced and observed . When people wonder about the nature of their real and true self , researchers sometimes send them back to photos and memories of their selves . At that age , many of our actual characteristics and interests are at the surface , because we have not yet developed the that tells us to hide features of who we really are in order to in . As adults are doing identity work , they can sometimes be aided by photos of their selves , often fully and expressing a range of opinions , interests , and identities , and bursting with . Photos and memories of that time period can serve as guides about what it might mean to be truly authentic . Other people can get in touch with themselves through creative acts , like journaling about your thoughts and feelings , expressing yourself by writing songs or short stories , painting , reading or improvisational theatre . Another interesting activity is the illustrated discovery journal , where you just photos , drawings , poems , or sayings that speak to you , and put them into a collage , journal , or sketchbook . These images and words , collected for no reason other than you like them , can provide windows that help you get to know yourself better . Other people get to know themselves through activities . They look for ways to be involved in the world that seem fun and meaningful , like gardening , building houses for Habitat for Humanity , dropping into the community center and taking a class , or volunteering somewhere . The most important aspect here is to look at options until you something that something you really want to do . That impulse saying , Wow , that would be fun , I really want to do that , can be seen as a message from your true self . And do worry , since your true self is developing too , you will have plenty of time to get acquainted over and over again ! At the same time however , there is a second strand , now available to adolescents through their skills . This set of processes is based on social desirability and what others ( real and imagined ) think about me , my personality , appearance , interests , and societal categories ( gender , sexual orientation , race and ethnicity , class , and so on ) This strand involves adolescents coming to grips with the societal messages that they have already learned about these various attributes and categories . Up to now , the catalogues of social evaluations children have experienced and observed have been understood as largely descriptive ( society likes their girls pretty and their boys strong ) but now they are becoming deeply personal and Am I pretty enough ?
Am I strong enough ?
Adolescents are tasked with constructing an identity that is socially acceptable , one that family , friends , classmates , teachers , online communities , and society at large will validate as If the strand is labeled , Who I think I am , then this second strand can be called , Who others think I am or more precisely , Who I think others think I am . The third strand of identity is kind of a view of both of these strands and how they together . It 268 Identity Development during Adolescence
consists of a summative personal and social evaluation of this whole identity that the adolescent has put Do I feel good about myself ?
You can see how these three strands can be in tension or conflict , and how them together might require some active negotiation . This is especially true when authentic characteristics of children ( like their sexual orientation , appearance , ethnic background , disability status , or grand passions ) are stigmatized , devalued , or evaluated by society as less than , or even dismissed as ( gender or transgender identities ) Adolescents are faced with an impossible choice They can either be true to themselves or create an identity that is socially valued . Initially it seems that all the options here are problematic . Adolescents can deny or dismiss the parts of themselves that society devalues , leading to a identity that , from the adolescents internal perspective feels hollow or fake . Unsatisfying and inauthentic . Or they can be true to themselves , accept society judgements about people like themselves , and conclude that this self they have been handed is authentic but inferior . In this case , we can say that adolescents have internalized the stigma and biases imposed by families , friends , or society in general . However , there are other options for healthy identity development . For adolescents to successfully negotiate these dilemmas , they need local social that believe and communicate messages that are very different from the ones broadcast by society more generally . These are messages such as girl power , the treasure of racial and ethnic heritage and tradition , pride , disability rights , and the inherent value and worth of all people . Parents and families play key roles in these efforts , by providing racial and ethnic ( gender , sexual , religious , disability , etc . socialization that counteracts biased messages , instills pride , and teaches children about histories of struggle against unjust treatment and discriminatory social narratives . Such socialization allows youth to externalize harmful societal messages , and come to view these characteristics as badges of honor , motivating them to with similar others and to participate in social justice movements . When families of origin are not supportive , young adults often create their own families of choice when they leave home . These families can include older adult mentors and role models , peers and close friends who adore them for exactly who they are , and younger adolescents whom they can mentor through processes of identity development . You can see why social are such integral parts of identity development . Social Factors in the Development of Identity To provide a framework for thinking about social factors , we can turn to views , like bioecological model and Spencer phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory . These models remind us that are complex and . We can begin by considering the important role of , like families , peer groups , and schools . But we should also consider forces , and especially , factors from that are structured according to societal status hierarchies , such as those based on race and ethnicity , class , and gender . We will review some general information about the crucial roles of parents , peers , and schools . And then consider in more detail the development of ethnic and racial identity , where the best research has been conducted to date on the role of societal status hierarchies . This body of research is relatively recent , because , who were largely white , did not recognize the centrality of identity development . We conclude with some thoughts on identity in white adolescents , about which not much is currently known . Parents . Much of the research on social on identity development focuses on caregivers . When all goes well , caregivers are the ones who can , starting with attachment processes , communicate warmth , affection , and unconditional love . They get to know a childs inborn temperament , come to value them as complex interesting individuals , and ways to provide a good match to their idiosyncrasies and quirks . Through emotion coaching , they help children develop the vocabulary to talk about their genuine feelings and desires , and work with them to develop strategies for seeing that their own needs are considered while also considering the needs of others . They provide role models and offer young children opportunities to play , explore their favorite activities , and follow their own interests . Using the idea of the styles of parenting , we can see that adolescents whose parents employ a largely authoritative parenting style , will likely have an easier time with the tasks of identity development . These adolescents have generally Identity Development during Adolescence 269
received strong messages of love and support for their genuine selves , while also learning how to follow true moral rules and act with kindness , honesty , and responsibility . The role of autonomy support is equally important , as adolescents are given both freedom and parental support when they explore different facets of their personal identities . It is also clear that other kinds of parenting may contribute to a rockier process of identity development . Parents who are more authoritarian , and do not allow deviation from rigid standards can make it more for children to participate in the exploratory processes that are so central to this task . Strong negative views of particular identities ( sexual orientation , gender , political views ) can throw up roadblocks to the adolescent authentic self . You can imagine that this style of parenting could lead to premature foreclosure when the adolescent just submits to parental wishes , or moratorium when youth get stuck in committing to an identity they can not really endorse . Or even rebellion , when adolescents then lose some of the close connections with family that can provide them support during this process . So called helicopter parents , who prevent children from taking risks and trying out new things , likewise curtail independence and exploratory activities , thus interfering with key processes of identity development . There are parts of permissive or indulgent parenting that may seem like they could facilitate identity development ( eg , warmth , love , and a philosophy of anything goes ) by encouraging children to do whatever feels right to them . However , as we discussed in the lectures on parenting , limits are good for children . Firm and reasonable limits help children learn to get along with others and respect others rights . Children with permissive parents tend toward immaturity , and lack of achievement and mastery . These attributes can interfere with the adolescent eventual decisions to commit to values , activities , and relationships that are important parts of identity development . Finally , neglectful caregivers , who basically ignore children , undermine the development of the security , and adolescents will need to make good decisions about who they are and who they want to become . Sometimes this history can leave adolescents wandering in identity diffusion where they are somewhat aimless and do not really take ownership for the next steps in their life . Peers . Much has been made about the importance of peers to processes of identity development , and for good reason . Relationships with friends and with members of peer groups are an important context for the development of identity during adolescence . Communication and interactions with peers provide opportunities to elaborate on possibilities , play out tentative exploration , and test commitments against others perspectives . Friendships and peer groups can be safe for exploration , made up of freely chosen and mutually supportive equals . Peers are important to all three strands of identity development . In the strand , the process of , adolescents communicate honestly with each other within these relationships . By giving and receiving information , they become more aware of the diversity of characteristics , preferences , and viewpoints found among their . Through this communication , they develop clarity about their own characteristics and get a better sense of who they are . Research has found that adolescents who have higher quality peer relationships , who interact more frequently with their peers , and are more involved in activities with also experience greater identity development and commitment . In the second strand , as a local social context of being seen , heard , and responded to by others , peer relationships are crucial sources of recognition , validation , and support for autonomy , as well as feedback about social desirability of attributes and preferences . Through processes of mirroring and social comparison , adolescents become aware of both similarities and differences to their own friends and peer groups , and with other . There is a desire to bond with like others and to , but this does not necessarily lead to blind conformity . Adolescents also embrace ways in which they are individually distinctive . They have a desire to be unique . The dynamic tension between similarity and individuality varies between individuals and changes across development . Most teens seek , to some extent , both to in and to stand out . Early adolescents are usually more susceptible to peer and conformity , while later 270 Identity Development during Adolescence
in adolescence distinctiveness tends to be more highly valued , even within relationships primarily based on or similarity . In the third strand of identity development , at the societal level of factors and processes that affect identity development , peers also play a part . Adolescents share their perspectives and react to societal norms , values , lifestyle choices , and social hierarchies within their peer relationships . These interactions affect identity development by helping teens clarify their own beliefs and preferences . Peers can also be agents for the impact of negative social forces , when they express stigma , prejudice , or discrimination . This can come from other in the social context , and sometimes even from within an individual own group . As it has been in relationships with parents , is also a process at work in adolescent peer relationships , and it contributes to identity formation . involves being drawn to and seeing your potential self in admired others , and then emulating their behaviors and characteristics . A good friend or popular peer group member , for example , may serve as a role model . In connection with the burgeoning importance of social aspects of life at this age , adolescent identity development also involves social , the valuing and adoption of group behaviors and group characteristics . Teens often adopt the dress , slang , mannerisms , attitudes , and activities of a crowd , which is a larger group or social category within their school context , or they may jointly emulate values and behaviors from a segment of popular culture . Schools . Although we talk more about schools in the section on education , it is important to emphasize here that , although schools may not always think of themselves as important of identity , they nevertheless play key roles in identity construction . They provide experiences , interaction partners , and messages to children about their academic identities ( how smart they are ) interests ( writing , robotics , math , music ) and vocational identities ( whether they are college bound or able to hold certain jobs ) These experiences happen in and out of class , with teachers and classmates , and include after school , and recreational activities . Schools can facilitate identity development when they offer rich and varied opportunities for exploration that expose children to different communities of learners and ( community organizers , professionals , scientists , gardeners , plumbers , care workers , creative artists ) Especially meaningful are activities with real responsibilities and opportunities to take leadership roles . Middle and high school can be tricky places for the healthy development of all students , but they can be especially problematic for adolescents who do not meet all the narrow societal norms endorsed by status hierarchies . Parents and educators are often at the vicious social messages that come from adolescents and target other adolescents who are perceived to be lower on social status hierarchies . However , if you wonder where adolescents get their ammunition , adults should examine the hierarchies of human worth that are currently endorsed by the larger society at this historical moment . Adolescents may be the police who enforce these rigid values , but they are enabled and trained by society at large . It is not an accident that adolescence is a time during which youth start to actively question and sometimes reject the social messages that society prescribes about the value , status , and privileges associated with particular personality characteristics , activities , physical appearances , and status categories . For many parents , their goals are to get their adolescents out of these school as soon as possible , to protect them from experiences of bullying and peer discrimination , and to alternative more supportive for them in other settings ( like creative arts centers or workplaces ) For some students , online communities allow them to friends and peers , and adults also create social messages , such as the It gets better campaign aimed at youth . The importance of schools continues on after high school , since universities often provide a wide range of role models and opportunities for students to explore and engage in identity development activities . Students who attend rigid narrow high schools are often astonished at the freedoms they at college , where they can discover and explore many facets of their identities through friendships , clubs , and classes . Especially important , they can seek out and choose their own family of adults ( teachers , advisors , mentors , etc . and peers , who encourage them to be themselves and love them for exactly who they are . Identity Development during Adolescence 271
To continue up the layers of social , we turn to the we have been discussing throughout this class . One area in which a great deal of important theorizing and research has been conducted focuses on a aspect of identity , namely , the development of identity during adolescence and emerging adulthood . Structural Racism and the Study of Identity The study of identity within the of developmental psychology has undergone a series of transformations in response to a growing awareness of the and historical and related challenges adolescents face in negotiating this task . Several perspectives have emerged , with each providing unique insights and generating relevant empirical . Three major contributions are ( model of ethnic identity formation ( 1990 ) based on Marcia developmental process dimensions of exploration and commitment ( extended bioecological models inspired by , including Spencer ( Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory ) and Garcia Coll and colleagues Integrative Model for the Study of Developmental in Minority Children and ( multidimensional , which focus on the content and structure of identity . An overview of each of these approaches follows . Additional information is available in the supplemental readings given at the end of the chapter . model of ethnic identity formation is based on son and Marcia model of identity formation ( 1990 Syed , 2014 ) Through process of exploration and commitment , individuals come to understand and create an ethnic identity . suggests three stages or statuses with regard to ethnic identity . Unexamined Ethnic Identity . Adolescents and adults who have not been exposed to ethnic identity issues may be in the stage , unexamined ethnic identity . This is often characterized by a default preference for the dominant culture , or where the individual has given little thought to the question of their ethnic or cultural heritage . This is similar to diffusion in Marcia model of identity . Included in this group are also those who have adopted the ethnicity of their parents and other family members with little thought about the issues themselves , similar to Marcia foreclosure status ( 1990 ) Ethnic Identity Search . Adolescents and adults who are exploring the customs , culture , and history of their ethnic group are in the ethnic identity search stage , similar to Marcia moratorium status ( 1990 ) Often some event ens a teen or adult to their ethnic group perhaps a personal experience with prejudice , a highly case in the media , or even a more positive event that highlights the contributions of someone from the individuals ethnic group . Teens and adults in this stage will immerse themselves in their ethnic culture . For some , it may lead to a rejection of the values of the dominant culture ( 1990 , 503 ) Achieved Ethnic Identity . Those who have actively explored their culture are likely to have a deeper appreciation and understanding of their ethnic heritage , resulting in progress toward an achieved ethnic identity ( 1990 ) An achieved ethnic identity does not necessarily imply that the individual is highly involved in the customs and values of their ethnic culture . One can be in their ethnic identity without wanting to maintain the language or other customs . The development of ethnic identity takes time , with about 25 of youth from ethnic minority backgrounds having explored and resolved these issues by tenth grade ( 1989 ) The more ethnically homogeneous the high school , the less adolescents explore and achieve an ethnic identity ( Taylor , 2003 ) Moreover , even in more ethnically diverse high schools , teens tend to spend more time with their own group , reducing exposure to other ethnicities . This may explain why , for many , college becomes the time of ethnic identity exploration . The transition to college may serve as a experience that triggers exploration ( Syed , 2009 , 618 ) Colleges can facilitate this process by requiring ethnic studies courses as part of their core curricula , and by supporting ethnic studies programs and student centers organized around ethnic . Extended bioecological systems models , inspired by . There are two of these models , the being the Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory ( developed by Margaret Spencer ( 2006 ) 272 Identity Development during Adolescence
is an developmental theory that identity formation within the social context , where risk and protective factors act as supports or stressors and create individual vulnerability , based on social position and personal experiences , as well as culture . Individuals play an active role in coping with their perceptions and vulnerability and forming identities that make sense in response to their experiences . is a model of overlapping and interacting systems . includes the role of individual experiences and perceptions and active responses and , and the reciprocal effects of the individual on their context and future experiences . The Integrated Model of and colleagues incorporates the social and contextual factors of position and structure , risk and promotion , and emphasizes the role of adaptive cultures and the family context , as well as individual child characteristics , in the production of various as positive developmental outcomes for children and youth ( Garcia Coll , Jenkins , Garcia , 1996 ) The Integrated Model includes identity as both a component of adaptive cultures and as an important positive outcome of development . A large body of research over several decades has applied these extended bioecological models to the study of marginalized , minority , and immigrant youth , and produced solid empirical evidence of the importance of contextual factors and individual responses , as well as evidence of the of strong socialization and identity ( Hughes , Del Tom , 2016 ) Multidimensional of identity have their roots in attempts to create scales to measure identity . A productive approach has been the dimensions described by Sellers and colleagues , who developed a questionnaire measure of Black racial identity for use in studies of antecedents , consequences , and optimizing social programs and interventions ( Sellers , Smith , Shelton , 1998 ) This approach focuses on the structure and content , rather than on the development of identity . The dimensions described by Sellers and colleagues are . Centrality or the importance of identity to . Salience or importance of identity in the situation . Public regard or perceptions of others evaluations of ones group ( Private regard or of ones own group ( and . Ideology or beliefs about how the group ( should behave . Differences have arisen in how these dimensions have been applied to different racial and ethnic groups and how they are considered to be related to developmental processes . For example , the Ethnic Identity Scale , which is widely used in the study of multiple ethnicities , includes two , namely , exploration and resolution , that assess the developmental process of identity , and a third , that assesses evaluative identity content ( Taylor , 2004 ) The Ethnic and Racial Identity in the Century Study Group undertook a comprehensive review and of racial and ethnic identity that resulted in the publication of a new integrative multidimensional conceptualization ( Lee , Cross , Schwartz , Syed , Yip , 2014 ) This new perspective includes the multiple dimensions of both identity content and developmental processes , and is applicable to both racial and ethnic categories . An important contribution of the Century Study Group was to combine the concepts of ethnic identity and racial identity into a single hyphenated construct , referred to as identity . Historically , the concept of race has been applied to the study of blacks and whites , but it has become clear that racial categories are socially constructed when characteristics and group are . Ethnicity , on the other hand , is a concept applied to a multitude of groups of people with shared cultural heritage , values , and traditions , and sometimes language , and is transmitted across generations . Both race and ethnicity have consequences for social experience and psychological development . They are often Identity Development during Adolescence 273
overlapping and interdependent . The hyphenated term , identity , indicates that both race , as categories within society , and ethnicity , as cultural heritage , are relevant , and that they are closely related in terms of similar processes and outcomes . This perspective underscores the principle of , in that it highlights the of identities as particular combinations of characteristics , ethnicity , cultural background , and immigration status ( Crenshaw , 1989 , 1991 ) It would suggest , for example , that Black adolescents night have very different identities ( along with experiences and treatment ) if they come from families who have lived in the US for centuries , compared to recent Jamaican or Haitian immigrants . This perspective encourages researchers to acknowledge and examine the wide heterogeneity inside groups that up to now may have been combined into categories like Black , or Asian Required Reading . Development of a Strong Positive Identity as a Protective Factor for Children and Youth This short paper provides an overview of the importance of positive identities and racial socialization for the healthy development of children and youth . These assets protect children and youth from discriminatory experiences and messages , and provide a strong foundation for resilience and thriving . Abstract . Experiences of racial and ethnic discrimination pose threats to the development and wellbeing of racial and ethnic minority children . Fortunately , not all youth who experience discrimination are susceptible to its harmful effects . Growing evidence points to several racial and ethnic factors that promote positive youth development and protect against the potentially damaging effects of racial and ethnic adversity . This article summarizes emerging research trends and conclusions regarding the promotive and protective effects of racial and ethnic identity , socialization , and cultural orientation , as well as some of the mechanisms that may account for their salutary properties . The article concludes with a brief discussion of important considerations and directions for the future study of racial and ethnic resilience processes in ethnic minority youth . 2012 ) The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic development . Child Development Perspectives ( Do White People Possess an Identity ?
Researchers who study identity often say that in the US , many white people are in that their race is not a salient part of their identity , and they have not examined or explored their own experiences and treatment through a racial lens . Historically , many white Americans have focused on their ethnic they or their ancestors are members of immigrant and religious groups , many of whom have experienced oppression and , including Jewish , Irish , Polish , and Italian immigrants . But white adolescents have typically thought much less about their racial heritage . Dominant groups , who assume that they are the default or prototype group in a given society , often racialize group members ( groups ) while resisting the idea that they too have a racial identity . For example , you will notice that and are often referred to using a 274 ) Identity Development during Adolescence
hyphenated label , whereas we read much less about . Social movements today provide white opportunities to on and construct a identity . Today , there are a subgroup of white people who are experiencing a different kind of awareness of their identity , based on perceived threats stemming from rapid social change and uncertainty about status and privilege . Although the source and nature of these experiences may not be readily apparent , we do want to underestimate their psychological and social consequences in the lived experiences of real people and those with whom they interact . Experiences of threatened evaluative status of personal and group identity are familiar to members of marginalized groups . This area has been studied by psychologists using several concepts and theoretical perspectives . One important concept is stereotype threat , which is a process by which people internalize ( usually negative ) messages from others about their own ( stereotypes ) then when their identity is made salient or they are faced with challenging tasks , those internalized evaluations are triggered . The mental activation of stereotypes ( threat ) can have adverse personal consequences , such as increased , reduced performance , or giving up . Social psychologists have emphasized responses to threat by members of threatened or marginalized groups that take the form of increasing the status of ones own group ( or members of other groups ( Threats to identity are particularly relevant in adolescence and early adulthood , when identity is , and in times of change and transition , either personal or societal . Perceived threat is complex and challenging to study when it occurs in the experience of privileged groups . For example , a research literature has emerged focused on the study of threats to masculinity . Some of the research on white identity comes under the heading of whiteness studies . Whiteness is a concept that attempts to capture the shared experience of the social and historical interpretations and consequences of being white in a particular society at a particular time . Recently , these lenses have been used to try to understand the appeal a white supremacist identity , which seems to attract some marginalized white youth , especially males who did not complete their education . and during Adolescence adolescence , teens continue to develop . Their ability to think of the possibilities and to reason more abstractly may explain the further differentiation of the self during adolescence . However , the teens understanding of self is often full of contradictions . Young teens may see themselves as outgoing but also withdrawn , happy yet often moody , and both smart and completely clueless ( 2012 ) These contradictions , along with the teens growing recognition that their personality and behavior seem to change depending on who they are with or where they are , can lead the young teen to feel like a fraud . With their parents they may seem angry and sullen , with their friends they are more outgoing and , and at work they are quiet and cautious . Which one is really me ?
may be the refrain of the young teenager . 2012 ) found that adolescents emphasize traits such as being friendly and considerate more than do children , highlighting their increasing concern about how others may see them . also found that older teens add values and moral standards to their . As differentiates , so too does . In addition to the academic , social , appearance , and athletic dimensions of in middle and late childhood , teens also add perceptions of their in romantic relationships , on the job , and in close friendships ( 2006 ) often drops when children transition from one school setting to another , such as shifting from elementary to middle school , or junior high to high school ( Ryan , Shim , 2013 ) These declines are usually temporary , unless there are additional stressors such as parental , or other family disruptions ( De Wit , Rye , 2011 ) rises from mid to late Identity Development during Adolescence 275
adolescence for most teenagers , especially if they feel competent in their peer relationships , appearance , and athletic abilities ( Wold , 2012 ) Parents and Teens Autonomy and Attachment It appears that most teens do not experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once famously suggested by Stanley Hall , a pioneer in the study of adolescent development . Only small numbers of teens have major with their parents ( Morris , 2001 ) and most disagreements are minor . For example , in a study of over parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups , 1994 ) found that occurred over issues such as homework , money , curfews , clothing , chores , and friends . These disputes typically occur because an adolescent desire for independence and autonomy parental supervision and control . These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop ( Almeida , 1992 ) Teens report more with their mothers ( than their fathers ) as many mothers believe they should still have some control over many of these areas , but at the same time teens often re ) Ol that their mothers are also more encouraging and supportive ( 2007 ) As teens grow er , more compromise is reached between parents and teenagers ( 2011 ) Teenagers begin to behave more res and parents increasingly recognize their need for autonomy . Parents are more controlling of daughters , especially early maturing girls , than they are sons ( Silva , 1993 ) In addition , culture and ethnicity also slay a role in how restrictive parents are with the daily lives of their children ( Chen , Van , 2013 ) Teenagers from supportive , less relationships with parents . Research on attachment in adolescence that teens who are still securely attached to their ) have fewer emotional problems ( 2015 ) are less likely to engage in drug abuse and other criminal behaviors ( 2004 ) and have more positive peer relationships ( 2009 ) Peers As children become adolescents , they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less time with their families , and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults . Children notions of friendship often focus on shared activities , whereas adolescents notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings . This increase in intimacy , mutuality , and reciprocity characterizes both teen friendships and relationships with members of adolescent peer A groups . During adolescence , peer groups evolve from primarily 30014 the to . Adolescents within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes , which has been explained as a function of , that is , adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time together in a birds of a feather together way . Adolescents who spend time together also shape each others behavior and attitudes . Peers serve as important sources of social support and companionship during adolescence , and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have peer relationships . Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence . In contrast to friendships , which are reciprocal dyadic relationships , and cliques , which refer to groups of individuals who interact frequently , crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions ( Brown Larson , 2009 ) These crowds reflect different prototypic identities , such as jocks or brains , and are often linked with adolescents social status and peers perceptions of their values or behaviors . 276 Identity Development during Adolescence
Peers and Socially Undesirable Behavior Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence . Negative peer pressure can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior than they would alone or in the presence of their family . For example , adolescents are much more likely to drink alcohol , use drugs , and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or with their family . One negative aspect of adolescent peer is known as deviant peer contagion ( 2011 ) which is the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood problem behavior . Parents and other adults are often concerned about these potential negative of peers , which can affect behavior , attitudes , and identity development . Peers can be associated with the adoption of unhealthy or antisocial behaviors , and also with the adoption of negative attitudes toward school , or socially undesirable norms and values . Often this is a transient rebellious phase , something some teens go through . But longer term , there is concern that these events may ultimately lead to patterns of antisocial or criminal behavior and identity . The biggest challenge for researchers is to sort out the relative importance of selection and in these circumstances . To what extent do adolescents select similar others on the same developmental path as themselves , and to what extent are they by those in whose proximity they themselves ?
It complicated . We are faced with a chicken or egg problem . Which came , the bad of undesirable behavior by others , or a desire for behavior ?
Unhealthy and delinquent behaviors and negative attitudes toward societal norms and values are preexisting within larger societal and may be freely chosen by some teens , but they are also adopted within local social where intragroup processes and social are at play . Aggressive or rebellious youth sometimes take a leadership role and become role models within peer groups . Individual differences are also at play . Adolescent development in peer involves the individuals own previous personal history . It involves their social experiences of acceptance and rejection on different attributes . It overlaps with their negotiation of personal and social identities that make sense and work for the individual . Within this complex reality , it is hard to make generalizations about cause and effect . We can , however , share the concern for ways to promote optimal development and , and look forward to continuing research efforts focused on the dark side of peer relationships and adolescent development . Romantic Relationships Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically emerge . By the end of adolescence , most American teens have had at least one romantic relationship ( 2011 ) However , culture does play a role as Asian Americans and are less likely to date than other ethnic groups ( Connolly , Craig , Goldberg , 2004 ) Dating serves many purposes for teens , including having fun , companionship , status , socialization , sexual experimentation , intimacy , and ( for those in late adolescence ) partner selection ( 2011 ) awe Romantic 170 There are several stages in the dating process beginning with adjustment engaging in group activities in early adolescence ( 2011 ) The peer groups that were common during childhood expand into peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence . Romantic relationships often form in the context of these peer groups ( Connolly , 2000 ) Interacting in groups is easier for teens as they are among a supportive group of friends , can observe others interacting , and are kept safe from a too early intimate relationship . By middle adolescence teens are engaging in brief , casual dating or in group dating with established couples ( 2011 ) Then in late adolescence dating involves exclusive , intense relationships . These relationships tend to be and continue for a year or longer , however , they may also interfere with friendships . Although romantic relationships during Identity Development during Adolescence 277
adolescence are often rather than committed partnerships , their importance should not be minimized . Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships , and their positive and negative emotions are tied more to romantic relationships , or lack thereof , than to friendships , family relationships , or school ( 2003 ) Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents identity formation , changes in family and peer relationships , and emotional and behavioral adjustment . Furthermore , romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents emerging sexuality . Parents , and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescent sexuality , in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse , diseases , contraception , and preventing teen pregnancies . However , sexuality involves more than this narrow focus . For example , adolescence is often the time when individuals who are lesbian , gay , bisexual , or transgender come to recognize themselves as such ( Russell , Clarke , Clary , 2009 ) Thus , romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities . However , a negative dating relationship can adversely affect an adolescent development . 2014 ) explored the link between relationship inauthenticity and mental health . Relationship inauthenticity refers to an incongruence between and actions within a relationship . Desires to gain partner approval and demands in the relationship may negatively affect an adolescent sense of authenticity . Because of the high status our society places on romantic relationships , especially for girls , adolescents sometimes allow themselves to be pressured into behaviors with which they are not really comfortable , and experience tension between their desires to be in a relationship and their need to set boundaries in the face of their partner wishes or demands . found that relationship inauthenticity was positively correlated with poor mental health , including depression , suicidal ideation and suicide attempts , especially for females . Supplemental Materials This documentary by Shakti Butler explores the and the impact of the criminal legal system on populations . This article discusses how harsh discipline school policies impact Black girls . Carter Andrews . 2017 ) The Effects of Zero Tolerance Policies on Black Girls . Urban Education This article explores racial identity in Black adolescents and how issues of respectability contribute to that identity development . Duncan A . 2007 ) Black adolescent racial and . Negro Educational Review 58 ( 35 . This article reviews the literature on racial identity development of Black adolescents and discusses the role of education in fostering positive racial identity development . 2009 ) A Review of the Racial Development of African American Adolescents The Role of Education . Review of Educational Research 79 ( This article discusses the promotive and protective effects of racial and ethnic identity , 278 Identity Development during Adolescence
socialization , and cultural orientation on youth of color . 2012 ) The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority development . Child Development Perspectives ( This chapter discusses the of youth organizing as an area of research . 2011 ) Taking stock of youth organizing An perspective . New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development 2011 ( 134 ) This short video informs teens how to get involved in youth activism . a One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
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Here are some tips by Kids News is licensed All Rights Reserved and is embedded here according to YouTube terms of service . Media adolescent identity is licensed under a ( Attribution Noncommercial ) license identity Young Muslim Women Boone is licensed under a ) license 282 Identity Development during Adolescence