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UNIT MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 184 Unit Middle Childhood Play and Peers Learning The Role of in Describe fourth stage of industry inferiority . play . Describe the six types of play that emerge over time . pretend play and describe how it contributes to development . Describe the ways that children from play . Explain how we can promote healthy play . Developmental Task of Middle Childhood Industry Inferiority According to , children in middle and late childhood are very busy or industrious ( 1982 ) They are constantly doing , planning , playing , getting together with friends , and achieving . This is a very active time , and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with peers . believed that if these industrious children can be successful in their endeavors , they will get a sense of for future challenges . If instead , a child feels that they are not measuring up to their peers , feelings of inferiority and will develop . These feelings of inferiority can , according to , lead to an inferiority complex that lasts into adulthood . To help children successfully negotiate this stage , they should be encouraged to explore their abilities . They should be given authentic feedback as well . Failure is not necessarily a horrible thing according to . Indeed , failure is a type of feedback which may help a child form a sense of modesty . A balance of competence and modesty is ideal for creating a sense of competence in the child . Play and Peers 185
The Role of Play in Development Figure What is Play ?
Play is spontaneous fun activity found at all ages and in all cultures . Play begins in infancy . Freud analyzed play in terms of emotional development . and saw play as a way for children to develop their intellectual abilities ( Dyer , 2006 ) called play a childs work . Subsequent research has shown that play provides many positive outcomes for children in all domains of development . The activity of play provides children opportunities to exercise all their developing capacities physical , cognitive , emotional , and social . Play is spontaneous children are intrinsically motivated to play . Play may be done alone or with others . It often involves pretending and . Types of Play . In a classic study , 1932 ) observed two to children and noted six types of play Three labeled as play ( unoccupied , solitary , and onlooker ) and three categorized as social play ( parallel , associative , and cooperative ) The following Table describes each type of play . Younger children engage in play more than older children by age associative and cooperative play are the most common forms of play ( Dyer , 2006 ) Table Classification of Types of Play in Preschool Children Category Description Unoccupied Play Children behavior seems more random and without a goal . This is the least common form of play . Children play by themselves , do not interact with others , nor are they engaging in similar activities as the children Sammy Play around them Onlooker Children are observing other children playing . They may comment on the activities and even make suggestions , but Play will not directly join the play . Parallel Play Children play alongside each other , using similar toys , but do not directly act with each other . Associative Play Cooperative Play Children will interact with each other and share toys , but are not working toward a common goal . Children are interacting to achieve a common goal . Children may take on different tasks to reach that goal . adapted from Paris , Ricardo , 2019 Pretend Play . Pretense is a familiar characteristic of play . Pretend play can be combined with physical play or playing with objects . When pretending , children act they engage in . Their words and actions are not literal , but evoke something beyond what is concretely present ( Hopkins , Smith , and , 2015 ) In his study of cognitive development , was interested in pretend play and he documented the way in which it involved symbolic thought , that is , the ability to have a symbol represent something in the real world . A toy , for example , has qualities beyond the way it was designed to function , and can be used to stand for a character or a completely different object . A banana can be used as a telephone . As seen in the study of early childhood , symbolic thought is an important capability developed at the end of the sensorimotor stage that paves the way for the development of language . But pretend play uses capabilities that go beyond symbolic thought and mental representation . 186 Play and Peers
Pretend play also requires the use of fantasy and imagination ( 2001 ) Imagination is distinct from , but jointly engaged during play with executive function , including the developing capabilities of memory , inhibition , and attention shifting ( White , 2013 ) A complex form of pretend play emerges in last two stages , associative play , and cooperative play . This new form is sociodramatic play , which is play with others , involving objects and actions woven into some kind of imagined situation or story . It is often in play with adults or older children . As the development of sociodramatic play progresses , children begin acting out roles . They use situated imaginary identities as the Figure I basis of action and to create story lines . Through the creation of settings , roles , and narrative , imagination is used to explore ideas about what follows what , and about how things unfold in the world ( De , 2008 ) Perspective taking is improved through this social form pretend play . Emotional development also is also fostered by sociodramatic play , as children choose interpretations and responses to imagined emotions in pretend situations , and responds to emotions that arise in generated between playmates . Perspective taking and dealing with emotions during pretend play contribute to the development of ( 2020 ) of Play Play in all its rich variety is one of the highest achievements of the human species , says David from Cambridge University Faculty of Education . It underpins how we develop as intellectual , emotional adults and is crucial to our success as a highly adaptable species . International bodies like the United Nations and the European Union have begun to develop policies concerned with children right to play , and to consider implications for leisure facilities and educational programs . Thanks to the Centre for Research on Play in Education , Development and Learning ( PEDaL ) at Cambridge , Baker , Gibson and a team of researchers are accumulating evidence on the role played by play in how a child develops . A strong possibility is that play supports the early development of children control , explains Baker , our abilities to develop awareness of our own thinking processes . If playful experiences do facilitate this aspect of development , say the researchers , it could be extremely for educational practices because the ability to has been shown to be a key predictor of academic performance . Gibson adds Playful behaviour is also an important indicator of healthy social and emotional development . In my previous research , I investigated how observing children at play can give us important clues about their and can even be useful in the diagnosis of disorders like Source Plays the Thing , Cambridge University research features thing is licensed under a BY Sports and Physical Education Play and Peers 187
Middle childhood seems to be a great time to introduce children to organized sports , and in fact , many parents do . Nearly million children play soccer in the United States ( United States Youth Soccer , 2012 ) This activity promises to help children improve athletically , learn a sense of competition , and build social skills . However , it has been suggested that the emphasis on competition and athletic skill can be counterproductive and lead children to grow tired of the game and want to quit . In many respects , it appears that activities are no longer children activities once adults become I involved and approach the games as adults rather than children . Figure 63 spam in The Soccer Federation recently advised coaches to reduce the amount of drilling engaged in during practice and to allow children to play more freely and to choose their own positions . The hope is that this will build on their love of the game and foster their natural talents . Sports are important for children . Children participation in sports has been linked to Higher levels of satisfaction with family and overall quality of life in children Improved physical and emotional development Better academic performance Yet , a study on children sports in the United States ( 2008 ) has found that gender , poverty , location , ethnicity , and disability can limit opportunities to engage in sports . Girls were more likely to have never participated in any type of sport . They also found that fathers may not be providing their daughters as much support as they do their sons . While boys rated their fathers as their biggest mentors who taught them the most about sports , girls rated coaches and physical education teachers as their key mentors . and also found that children in suburban neighborhoods had a much higher participation of sports than boys and girls living in rural or urban centers . In addition , Caucasian girls and boys participated in organized sports at higher rates than minority children . Students do always persist in their participation in extracurricular and other organized sports activities . and asked children who had dropped out of organized sports why they left . For both girls and boys , the number one answer was that it was no longer any fun ( see Table ) According to the Sport Policy and Research Collaborative ( 2013 ) almost in children drop out of organized sports , and while there are many factors involved in the decisions to drop out , one suggestion has been the lack of training that coaches of children sports receive may be contributing to this attrition ( Smith , 1992 ) Several studies have found that when coaches receive proper training , the rate is about instead of the usual 30 ( Cote , 2005 , 2013 ) 188 Play and Peers
Table Top Reasons Dropped Out or Stopped Playing Team Sports Girls Boys I was not having fun 38 I was not having fun 39 I wanted to focus more on studying and grades 36 I had a health problem or injury 29 I had a health problem or injury 27 I wanted to focus more on studying and grades 26 I wanted to focus more on other clubs or activities 22 I did not like or get along with the coach 22 I did not like or get along with the coach 18 I wanted to focus more on other clubs or activities 18 I did not like or get along with others on the team 16 I did not like or get along with others on the team 16 I was not a good enough player 15 I was not a good enough player 15 My family worried about me getting hurt or injured while 14 My family worried about me getting hurt or injured while 12 playing sports playing sports Source , 2008 ) Go Out and Play Youth Sports in America . East Meadows , NY Women Sports Physical Education . For many children , physical education in school is a key component in introducing children to sports and regular physical activity . After years of schools cutting back on physical education programs , there has been a turnaround , prompted by concerns over childhood obesity and related health issues . Despite these changes , currently only the state of Oregon and the District of Columbia meet PE guidelines of a minimum of 150 minutes per week of physical activity in elementary school and 225 minutes in middle school ( 2016 ) There is also controversy about physical education . Some experts recommend changing the content of these classes . Training on competitive sports , often a high priority , is unlikely to reach the least physically youngsters . Instead , programs could emphasize cooperation , enjoyable informal games , and individual exercise . Learning Objectives Friendships and Peer Identify three research traditions that study children relationships with . Describe differences in boys and girls friendships . Describe of friendship . How do friendships differ from peer relationships ?
Describe sociometric assessment . Identify the categories of sociometric status and describe how children in these categories differ from each other . Friendship and Peer Relationships Friendships and peer relationships are voluntary associations characterized by some degree of and affiliation . Three research traditions focus on the study of friendship and peer relationships . First , there is the study of friendships , which are dyadic relationships involving closeness and reciprocity . Second , another tradition studies groups of affiliated Play and Peers 189
peers . In adolescence , these include cliques and crowd . Third , a separate tradition researches status and popularity , a tradition known as . Let look at each of these separately . Friendship As toddlers , children may begin to show a preference for certain playmates ( Ross . 1989 ) However , peer interactions at this age often involve more parallel play rather than intentional social interactions ( Dodge , Bates , 1996 ) By age four , many children use the word friend when referring to certain children and do so with a fair degree of stability ( 1983 ) However , among young children friendship is often based on proximity , such as they live next door , attend the same school , or it refers to whomever they happen to be playing with at the time ( Rubin , 1980 ) Friendships take on new importance to ones feelings of worth , competence , and attractiveness in middle and late childhood . Friendships provide the opportunity for learning social skills , such as how to communicate with others and how to negotiate differences . Children get ideas from one another about how to perform certain tasks , how to gain popularity , what to wear or say , and how to act . This society of children marks a transition from a life focused on the family to a life concerned with peers . During middle and late childhood , peers play an increasingly important role . For example , peers play a key role in a child at this age as any parent who has tried to console a rejected child will tell you . No matter how complimentary and encouraging the parent may be , being rejected by friends can only be remedied by renewed acceptance . Children conceptualization of what makes someone a friend changes from a more egocentric understanding to one based on mutual trust and commitment . Both ( 1977 ) and ( 1980 ) believe that these changes are linked to advances in cognitive development . and La ( 1975 ) outline three stages in children of friendship . In stage one , cost , friendship focuses on mutual activities . Children in early , middle , and late childhood all emphasize similar interests as the main characteristics of a good friend . Stage two , normative expectation focuses on conventional morality that is , the emphasis is on a friend as someone who is kind and shares with you . Clark and ( 1992 ) found that , compared to third or eighth graders , graders emphasized this more in a friend . In the stage , empathy and understanding , friends are people who are loyal , committed to the relationship , and share intimate information . Clark and ( 1992 ) reported eighth graders emphasized this most in a friend . They also found that as early as grade , girls were starting to include sharing of secrets , and not betraying as crucial to someone who is a friend . 1980 ) outlines stages of friendship from early childhood through to adulthood Momentary physical interaction , a friend is someone who you are playing with at this point in time . notes that this is typical of children between the ages of three and six . These early friendships are based more on circumstances ( eg , a neighbor ) than on genuine similarities . assistance , a friend is someone who does nice things for you , such as saving you a seat on the school bus or sharing a toy . However , children in this stage , do not always think about what they are contributing to the relationships . Nonetheless , having a friend is important and children will sometimes put up with a not so nice friend , just to have a friend . Children as young as and as old as nine may be in this stage . cooperation , children are very concerned with fairness and reciprocity , and thus , a friend is someone returns a favor . In this stage , if a child does something nice for a friend there is an expectation that the friend will do something nice for them at the available opportunity . When this fails to happen , a child may break off the 190 Play and Peers
friendship . found that some children as young as seven and as old as twelve are in this stage . Intimate and mutual sharing , typically between the ages of eight and , a friend is someone who you can tell them things you would tell no one else . Children and teens in this stage no longer keep score and do things for a friend because they genuinely care for the person . If a friendship dissolves in the stage it is usually due to a violation of trust . However , children in this stage do expect their friend to share similar interests and viewpoints and may take it as a betrayal if a friend likes someone that they do not . Autonomous interdependence , a friend is someone who accepts you and that you accept as they are . In this stage children , teens , and adults accept and even appreciate differences between themselves and their friends . They are also not as possessive , so they are less likely to feel threatened if their friends have other relationships or interests . Children are typically twelve or older in this stage . Peer Groups In addition to their friendships , children also interact with other children their own age , referred to as peers . Peers include children encountered at school , in the neighborhood , or through family associations . Not all peers are friends . Some are acquaintances , and others are , but still part of the social context . Collections of peers that hang out or repeatedly engage in joint activities are referred to as peer groups , or cliques . and Popularity Sociometric assessment measures social status and acceptance among members of a group , such as a classroom of students . In sociometric research children are asked to mention the three children they like to play with the most , and those they do not like to play with . The number of times a child is nominated for each of the two categories ( like , do not like ) is tabulated . Popular children receive many votes in the like category , and very few in the do not like category . In contrast , rejected children receive more unfavorable votes , and few favorable ones . Controversial children are mentioned frequently in each category , with several children liking them and several children placing them in the do not like category . Neglected children are rarely mentioned in either category , and the average child has a few positive votes with very few negative ones ( Asher , 1981 ) Most children want to be liked and accepted by their friends . Some popular children are nice and have good social skills . These children tend to do well in school and are cooperative and friendly . children may gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others ( 2004 ) Rejected children are sometimes excluded because they are . These children are shy and withdrawn and are easy targets for bullies because they are unlikely to retaliate when belittled ( 1999 ) Other rejected children are and are Figure ostracized because they are aggressive , loud , and confrontational . The children may be acting out of a feeling of insecurity . Unfortunately , their fear of rejection only leads to behavior that brings further rejection from other children . Children who are not accepted are more likely to experience , lack , and have trouble adjusting ( 2008 Schwartz , Dodge , Bates , 2014 ) Consequences of Popularity . Childhood popularity researcher Mitch has found that likability in childhood leads to positive outcomes throughout one life ( as cited in Reid , 2017 ) Adults who were accepted in childhood have stronger marriages and work relationships , earn more money , and have better health outcomes than those who were unpopular . Further , those who were unpopular as children , experienced greater anxiety , depression , Play and Peers 191
substance use , obesity , physical health problems and suicide . found that a consequence of unpopularity was that children were denied opportunities to build their social skills and negotiate complex interactions , thus contributing to their continued unpopularity . Further , biological effects can occur due to unpopularity , as social rejection can activate genes that lead to an response . Supplemental Materials This video gives a brief history and of jump rope , particularly for Black girls in the One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
References Asher , 1981 ) Children social competence in peer relations Sociometric and behavioral assessment . In Wine ( Social competence ( New York Press . Smith , 1992 ) Effects of enhancing relationships on youth sport attrition . The Sport Psychologist , 1977 ) Children friendship expectations A cognitive developmental study . Child Development , 48 , La , 1975 ) Children written descriptions of friendship A multidimensional analysis . Developmental Psychology , 11 ( 1999 ) Concurrent and longitudinal relations between children playground behavior and social preference , victimization , and bullying . Child Development , 70 , White , 2013 ) Executive function , pretend play , and imagination . In The Oxford handbook of the development of imagination ( Oxford University Press . 2004 ) From censure to reinforcement Developmental changes in the association between aggression and social status . Child Development , 75 , Clark , 1992 ) Friendship expectations and the evaluation of present friendships in middle childhood and early adolescence . Child Study Journal , 22 , De , 2008 ) The development of early sociodramatic play . Discourse Studies , 10 ( 192 Play and Peers
Dyer , 2006 ) Frequency of parallel , associative , and cooperative play in British children of different status . Social Behavior and Personality , 34 ( 1982 ) The life cycle completed . NY Norton Company . Cote , 2005 ) Youth sport programs An avenue to foster positive youth development . Physical Education Sport Pedagogy , 10 , 2010 ) Role of sociodramatic play in promoting . In Play therapy for preschool children ( American Psychological Association . 2008 ) Children peer relations and their psychological adjustment Differences between close friends and the larger peer group . Quarterly , 54 , Hopkins , Smith , 2013 ) The impact of pretend play on children development A review of the evidence . Psychological Bulletin , 139 ( 1932 ) Social participation among preschool children . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 27 , Dodge , Bates , 1996 ) Stability and change in status The role of child behavior , parenting , and family ecology . Quarterly , 42 ( Reid , 2017 ) questions for Mitch . Monitor on Psychology , 48 ( Ross , 1989 ) A social relations analysis of toddler peer relations . Child Development , 60 , Rubin , 1980 ) Children friendships . Cambridge , MA Harvard University Press . 2008 ) Go out and play Youth sports in America . East Meadow , NY Women Sports Foundation . Schwartz , Dodge , Bates , 2014 ) Peer victimization during middle childhood as a lead indicator of internalizing problems and diagnostic outcomes in late adolescence . Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology , 44 , 1980 ) The growth of interpersonal understanding . London Academic Press . 2001 ) The impact of fantasy and action on young children understanding of pretence . British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 19 ( Sport Policy and Research Collaborative ( 2013 ) What is the status of youth coach training in the US ?
University of Florida . Retrieved from content uploads content upload Project Sport Policy and Research Collaborative ( 2016 ) State of play 2016 Trends and developments . The Aspen Institute . Retrieved from publications United States Youth Soccer . 2012 ) US youth soccer at a glance . Retrieved from OER Play and Peers 193
Lifespan Development A Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution International License Child Growth and Development by College of the , Jennifer Paris , Antoinette Ricardo , and Dawn and is used under a BY international license Plays the Thing , Cambridge University is licensed under a BY 40 Additional written material by Dan Grimes Brandy Brennan , Portland State University , and is licensed i Video How the jump rope got its by TED is licensed Media Peter is licensed under a ( Creative Commons Zero license Irving is licensed under a ( Creative Commons Zero ) license sports Aman is licensed under a Creative Commons Zero ) license is licensed under a Creative Commons Zero ) license 194 Play and Peers
Cognitive Development Learning Objectives Cognitive Development during Middle Childhood Name three major advances in cognitive development that occur with the shift to concrete operational thinking . What do these developments allow that thinking during the stage did not ?
Provide some examples of how concrete operational thought is seen in children everyday functioning during middle childhood . What are the limitations of concrete operational thought ?
Recall from the last chapter that during early childhood children are in stage , and during this stage , children are learning to think symbolically about the world . As children continue into elementary school , they develop the ability to represent ideas and events more and logically . Their rules of thinking still seem very basic by adult standards and usually operate unconsciously , but they allow children to solve problems more systematically than before , and therefore to be successful with many academic tasks . In the concrete operational stage , for example , a child may unconsciously follow the rule If nothing is added or taken away , then the amount of something stays the same . This simple principle helps children to understand certain arithmetic tasks , such as in adding or subtracting zero from a number , as well as to do certain classroom science experiments , such as ones involving judgments of the amounts of liquids when mixed . called this period the concrete operational stage because children mentally operate on concrete objects and events . Concrete Operational Thought From ages to 11 , children are in what referred to as the concrete operational stage of cognitive development ( Crain , 2005 ) This involves mastering the use of logic in concrete ways . The word concrete refers to that which is tangible that which can be seen , touched , or experienced directly . The concrete operational child is able to make use of logical principles in solving problems involving the physical world . For example , the child can understand principles of cause and effect , size , and distance . The child can use logic to solve problems tied to their own direct experience , but has trouble solving hypothetical problems or considering more abstract problems . The child uses inductive reasoning , which is a logical process in which multiple premises believed to be true are combined to obtain a specific conclusion . For example , a child has one friend who is rude , another friend who is also rude , and the same is true for a third friend . The child may conclude that friends are rude . We will see that this way of thinking tends to change during adolescence as deductive reasoning emerges . We will now explore three of the major capacities that the concrete operational child exhibits . Thought becomes multidimensional . Concrete operational children no longer focus on only one dimension of any object ( such as the height of the glass ) and instead can coordinate multiple dimensions simultaneously ( such as the width of the glass ) That is , they are no longer limited by , which is why this gain is also known by the term Cognitive Development 195
decentration ) allows children to take multiple perspectives at the same time , to understand while relationships , and to cross classify objects using multiple features . Figure . Children looking at these glasses demonstrate multidimensional thinking when looking at more than one attribute . tall , short , and wide narrow . Multiple perspectives . Remember our discussion of when young children were asked to describe the Three Mountain display from the perspective of someone sitting across the table form them ?
They could only report on the view form one their own . With the emergence of connote operations , children can now understand that people looking from different vantage points , see different features . They can coordinate multiple perspectives . This skill is very useful , and can be practiced , while playing with peers and settling peer disputes . relationships . Think back to thought , where if you showing a long child a bouquet of six daisies and roses , and asked them whether there were more daisies or , they would typically answer daisies ?
They could not coordinate the two perspectives of part and Now in middle childhood , these questions seem of course there are more , include both daisies and roses . At the age , the correct answer is it a logical necessity . As children experiences and grow , they build schemata and are able to organize objects in many different ways . They also understand hierarchies and can arrange objects into a variety of classes and . 196 Cognitive Development
Figure . This child might use if she sorts these toys by color . Thought becomes operational . A second major shift in cognitive development during middle childhood coccus when thought becomes operational , by which meant that it consists of reversible , organized systems of mental actions . These systems allow children to mentally undo actions ( reversibility ) and to understand that certain properties of objects ( like their number , mass , volume , and so on ) remain constant despite transformations in appearance ( conservation ) Reversibility . The child learns that some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state . Water can be frozen and then thawed to become liquid again , but eggs can not be unscrambled . Arithmetic operations are reversible as well and . Many of these cognitive skills are incorporated into the schools curriculum through mathematical problems and in worksheets about which situations are reversible or irreversible . Conservation . Remember the example in our last chapter Of children thinking that a tall beaker Figure . Understanding that ice cubes melt is an example with ounces of water was more than a short , wide bowl Of reversibility with ounces of water ?
Concrete operational children can understand the concept of conservation which means that changing one quality ( in this example , height or water level ) can be compensated for by changes in another quality ( width ) Consequently , there is the same amount of water in each container , although one is taller and narrower and the other is shorter and wider . Cognitive Development 197
Figure . Beakers displaying the idea of conservation . Thought becomes logical . A third major accomplishment of concrete operational development is that thought becomes logical , and children can reason logically about concrete events . Inferring characteristics . Where young children reasoning was focused on perceptual cues , older children can now consider a variety of cues and from , use the power of inference , to reach a logical conclusion about characteristics . This capacity is seen in children understanding of their own and other people capacities and personalities . For example , after a child does well on multiple multiple assignments in math , she may conclude that she is high in math ability . Identify features . Whereas young children understanding was dominated by the most perceptually salient features of objects , with concrete operational thought , children in middle childhood focus instead on the features of particular objects or states . They are not distracted by the most salient features they recognize the underlying features . For example , young children might think that bicycles and toasters are alive ( a kind of thought called animism , remember ?
because they move . By middle childhood , however , children understand that even though many mechanical devices ( cars , and natural objects move ( the sun , the tides ) only plants and animals have a life force , which is the feature of being alive . Seriation . Arranging items along a quantitative dimension , such as length or weight , in a methodical way is now demonstrated by the concrete operational child . For example , they can methodically arrange a series of sized sticks in order by length . This is a complicated task that multidimensional thinking , because each object must be placed so that it is bigger than the one before it , but smaller than the one after it . These capacities allow children to make social comparisons as well , estimating who is bigger or better along some attribute or capacity ( spelling ability , soccer skills , drawing ) Social comparison plays a role in the shift in children estimates of their capacities they change from the rosy overestimates of early childhood ( where everyone sees themselves as good at everything regardless of performance ) to a more accurate view that corresponds to external ( school grades ) during middle childhood . 198 Cognitive Development
Figure . Putting these squares from smallest to largest is an example of . Transitive inference . Being able to understand how objects are related to one another is referred to as transitivity , or transitive inference . This means that if one understands that a dog is a mammal , and that a poodle is a dog , then a poodle must be a mammal . Figure . Transitivity allows children to understand that this poodle is a dog and a mammal Limitations of concrete operational thought . These new cognitive skills increase the child understanding of the physical world , however according to , they still can not think in abstract ways . Additionally , they do not think in systematic ways . For example , when asked which variables the period that a pendulum takes to complete its arc and given weights they can attach to strings in order to do experiments , most children younger than 12 perform biased experiments from which no conclusions can be drawn ( 1958 ) Cognitive Development 199
References Crain , 2005 ) Theories of development ( Upper Saddle River , Pearson . 1958 ) The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence . New York Basic Books . OER Attribution Lifespan Development A Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a Educational Psychology by Kevin , is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License license One sentence Download for free at . Understanding the Whole Child Prenatal Development Through Adolescence by Jennifer Paris Antoinette Ricardo and Dawn , College of the Canyons is licensed under BY A derivative from the original work Cognitive Development in Childhood by Boundless is licensed under Media is licensed under a ( Attribution ( license ! is licensed under a ( Creative Commons Zero license 23746727113 John Liu is licensed under a BY ( Attribution ) license Conservation of Liquid is licensed under a ( Attribution ( license task shapes is licensed under a ( Attribution ( license is licensed under a ( Creative Commons Zero ) license 200 Cognitive Development
Moral Development Learning Objectives Development of Moral Reasoning According to ( theory , what are the three stages of moral reasoning ?
How do these stages correspond to stages of cognitive development ?
What are the within each one and how do they differ ?
What factors the development of moral reasoning ?
What are the primary critiques of I ( theory ?
Do you think that the development of a strong moral compass can provide a foundation for future collective action on behalf of social justice ?
I ( Stages of Moral Development ( 1963 ) built on the work of and was interested in out how our moral reasoning changes as we get older . He wanted to out how people decide what is right and what is wrong . Just as believed that children cognitive development follows stages , 1984 ) argued that we learn our moral values through active thinking and reasoning , and that moral development follows a series of qualitatively different stages . six stages are generally organized into three levels of moral reasons . To study moral development , posed moral dilemmas to children , teenagers , and adults , such as the following A man wife is dying of cancer and there is only one drug that can save her . The only place to get the drug is at the store of a pharmacist who is known to overcharge people for drugs . The man can only pay , but the pharmacist wants , and refuses to sell it to him for less , or to let him pay later . Desperate , the man later breaks into the pharmacy and steals the medicine . Should he have done that ?
Was it right or wrong ?
Why ?
1984 ) Level . Morality . Reasoning during Level one , which is broken into two stages , is based on what would happen to the man as a result of the act , that is , on the consequences of the act . In Stage , moral reasoning is based on concepts of punishment . The child believes that if the consequence for an action is punishment , then the action was wrong . For example , they might say the man should not break into the pharmacy because the pharmacist might him and beat him . In Stage , the child bases his or her thinking on and reward . You scratch my back , I scratch They might say that the man should break in and steal the drug and his wife will give him a big kiss . Right or wrong , both decisions were based on what would physically happen to the man as a result of the act . This is a approach to moral . He called this most understanding of right and wrong morality . morality focuses on . Punishment is avoided , and rewards are sought . Adults can also fall into these stages , particularly when they are under pressure . Level . Conventional Morality . Those tested who based their answers on authority , that is , based on what other people would think of the man as a result of his act , were placed in Level Two . For instance , they might say he should break into the store , and then everyone would think he was a good husband , or he should not because it is against the law . In Moral Development 201
either case , right and wrong is determined by what other people think . In Stage , the person reasons based on mutual expectations and relationships . They want to please others . At Stage , the person acknowledges the importance of social norms or laws and wants to be a good member of the group or society . A good decision is one that gains the approval of others or one that complies with the law . This he called conventional morality , people care about the effect of their actions on others . Some older children , adolescents , and adults use this reasoning . Level . Morality . Right and wrong are based on social contracts established for the good of everyone and that can transcend the self and social convention . For example , the man should break into the store because , even if it is against the law , the wife needs the drug and her life is more important than the consequences the man might face for breaking the law . Alternatively , the man should not violate the principle of the right of property because this rule is essential for social order . In either case , the person judgment goes beyond what happens to the self . It is based on a concern for others for society as a whole , or for an ethical standard rather than a legal standard . This level is called moral development because it goes beyond convention or what other people think to a higher , universal ethical principle of conduct that may or may not be reflected in the law . Notice that such thinking is the kind Supreme Court justices do all day when deliberating whether a law is moral or ethical , which requires being able to think abstractly . Often this is not accomplished until a person reaches adolescence or adulthood . In the Stage , laws are recognized as social contracts . The reasons for the laws , like justice , equality , and dignity , are used to evaluate decisions and interpret laws . In the Stage , individually determined universal ethical principles are weighed to make moral decisions . said that few people ever reach this stage . The six stages can be reviewed in Table . Table Lawrence Levels Reasoning Moral Level Age Description Stage Focus is on and punishment is avoided . The man should steal Young the drug , as he may get caught and go to jail . morality usually prior to age Stage Rewards are sought . A person at this level will argue that the man should steal the drug because he does not want to lose his wife who takes care of him . Stage Focus is on how situational outcomes impact others and wanting to please and Conventional be accepted . The man should steal the drug because that is what good husbands do . morality most adults Stage People make decisions based on laws or formalized rules . The man should obey the law because stealing is a crime . Stage Individuals employ abstract reasoning to justify behaviors . The man should steal the drug because laws can be unjust , and you have to consider the whole situation . Stage Moral behavior is based on ethical principles . The man should steal the drug because life is more important than property . Rare with adolescents morality and few adults Adapted from Lally , 2019 . on Moral Development What moral development ?
argued that moral development was not an automatic , process , nor was it mechanistic , in that moral development could simply be taught ( Crain , 1985 ) Instead , he proposed that it develops through repeated practice in situations where children must think together with adults or peers about moral problems where their viewpoints are challenged or questioned where they have to consider others perspectives and perhaps revise their own and where they must try to coordinate their own desires and those of others with the help of moral rules . Moreover , it is our active engagement with these thought processes that helps our development ( Berkowitz Gibbs , 1983 ) This engagement can occur in many three notable ones are our caregivers , our schooling , and our peers ( Berk , 2014 , 326 ) 202 Moral Development
Studies suggest that caregivers use of an authoritative parenting style helps children reach higher stages of moral reasoning ( Pratt , Arnold , 2010 ) This style emphasizes care , consistent and fair expectations , and support for autonomy in ways such as discussing the reasoning for rules and encouraging children own perspectives . These aspects of parenting can help children practice their own moral reasoning , allow them to internalize true moral principles , and over time to act on them under conditions of greater ( aka temptation ) On the other hand , use of threats and lectures do not help moral reasoning ( Walker Taylor , 1991 ) Studies suggest that children remember the negative affect and exertion of force , which interferes with the internalization of moral principles Education is another important venue for practicing moral reasoning . In general , the more years individuals dedicate to schooling , the higher their average level of moral reasoning ( Dawson , 2002 ) In particular , schools help promote moral reasoning when they offer students exposure to diverse experiences and ways of being , and taking opportunities , and chances to discuss and defend their own viewpoints ( 2006 Mason Gibbs , 1993 ) Within schools and outside of them , peers are important relational partners for developing moral reasoning . As opposed to conversations with parents or teachers , which are hierarchical , peers are on footing . With peers , individuals need to practice communicating their own needs and considering the needs of their friends to reach decisions and resolve ( 1995 ) Critiques . Although research has supported idea that moral reasoning changes from an early emphasis on punishment and social rules and regulations to an emphasis on more general ethical principles , as with approach , stage model is probably too simple . For one , people may use higher levels of reasoning for some types of problems but revert to lower levels in situations where doing so is more consistent with their goals or beliefs ( Rest , 1979 ) Second , it has been argued that the stage model is particularly appropriate for Western , rather than Western , samples in which allegiance to social norms , such as respect for authority , may be particularly important ( 2001 ) In addition , there is frequently little correlation between how we score on the moral stages and how we behave in real life . Perhaps the most important critique of theory is that it emphasizes justice without incorporating compassion and other moral considerations , and in doing so might describe the moral development of males better than it describes that of females ( who were not represented in ( initial research ) 1982 ) has argued that , because of differences in their socialization , males tend to value principles of justice and rights , whereas females value caring for and helping others . She argued for an ethic of care , emphasizing our human responsibilities to one another and consideration for others . Although there is little evidence for a gender difference in ( stages of moral development ( 1998 ) there is some evidence that girls and women tend to focus more on issues of caring , helping , and connecting with others than do boys and men ( Hyde , 2000 ) Despite these trends in the relative priorities of caring and justice , evidence suggests that people of all genders consider both justice and caring to some extent in their moral decisions ( Berk , 2014 Walker , 1995 ) Development of an internal moral compass as a prerequisite for social activism . Researchers have become increasingly interested in the childhood antecedents of adolescent and adult action on behalf of social and racial justice ( Yip , 2016 ) These are complex cognitive , social , and motivational processes , that likely are shaped by a host of experiences , such as family participation in civil engagement activities ( volunteering and protest movements ) However , an important prerequisite would include the development of a strong moral compass during early and middle childhood . internalization of moral principles of honesty , fairness , and accountability would be useful for helping adolescents and young adults recognize inequities and feel morally responsible for doing their part to see justice done . This will be an interesting area for further study ( et , 2016 ) Moral Development 203
References Berkowitz , Gibbs , 1983 ) Measuring the Developmental Features of Moral Discussion . Quarterly , 29 ( Retrieved September , 2020 , from , 2006 ) Promotion of moral judgement maturity through stimulation of social and social An Italian intervention study . Journal of Moral Education , 35 ( Dawson , 2002 ) New tools , new insights moral judgement stages revisited . International Journal of Behavioral Development , 26 ( 1982 ) In a different voice Psychological theory and women development . Cambridge , MA Harvard University Press . 2001 ) The emotional dog and its rational tail A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment . Psychological Review , 108 ( Hyde , 2000 ) Gender differences in moral orientation A . Psychological Bulletin , 126 ( Yip , 2016 ) Equity and justice in developmental science Discrimination , social exclusion , and attitudes . Child Development , 87 ( 1963 ) The development of children toward a moral order Sequence in the development of moral thought . Vita , 16 , 1968 ) The child as a moral philosopher . Psychology today ) 1984 ) The psychology of moral development Essays on moral development ( Vol . 200 ) San Francisco , CA Harper Row . Mason , Gibbs , 1993 ) Social Perspective Taking and Moral Judgment among College Students . Journal of Adolescent Research , Pratt , Arnold , 2004 ) Care reasoning development and family patterns in later adolescence A longitudinal analysis . International Journal of Behavioral Development , 28 ( 1998 ) The development of morality . In Damon ( Ed . Handbook of child psychology Socialization ( Vol . New York , NY John Wiley Sons . Crain . 1985 ) Theories of Development . Walker , 1995 ) Sexism in moral psychology ?
In ( Moral development An introduction ( Boston and Bacon . Walker , Taylor , 1991 ) Stage transitions in moral reasoning A longitudinal study of developmental processes . Developmental Psychology , 27 ( OER Attribution 204 Moral Development Lifespan Development A Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a Additional written material by Ellen Skinner Heather , Portland State University is licensed under Moral Development 205 Gender Development Learning Objectives Gender Development What is the overall developmental task of constructing a gender identity ?
What is the difference between sex and gender ?
Be able to multiple facets of a society gender curriculum , including gender roles and gender stereotyping . What is psychological androgyny and how is it connected to adjustment . and . Summarize four major theories explaining gender development , namely , social learning theory . neurophysiological bases . cognitive developmental theory , and gender schema theory . What underlies each theory ?
How does a dynamic systems approach incorporate all four of these theories ?
What are the six major milestones in gender development ?
Name the six areas in which gender differences in psychological functioning have typically been found . ow big are these differences ?
The task of gender development is a complex process that takes place in concert with societal stereotypes and the local social they shape . The empirical picture is not complete , but it seems that gender identities are complex internalized cognitive and emotional representations that children and youth construct for themselves over time , based on the biological and temperamental givens that each one comes with and their cumulative interactions with the social worlds of family , school , peers , and society . Much of gender development seems to cognitive changes that allow children to successively realize and try to make sense of different aspects of gender identity , but the whole seems to be built on a foundation created by biological or neurophysiological givens . We will trace the main milestones that children experience in constructing their own gender identities , in order to suggest ways in which parents ( and other adults ) can support children and adolescents healthy development . Gender development is a fascinating process because it is deeply rooted in biology , profoundly shaped by societal expectations , and actively constructed by individuals over and over again at different developmental levels . All theories of gender identity posit that the processes shaping its development are both biological and societal , so it is important to get straight on those biological and social processes before we turn to development . This is also a fascinating historical moment to study gender development because science is revealing more and more about its biological and psychological complexity , just as society is undergoing a gender revolution in which people are questioning , exploring , and recognizing a much broader spectrum of gender and sexual identities . Processes of Gender 206 Gender Development
The terms sex and gender are often used interchangeably , although they have different meanings . In this context , sex refers to biological categories ( traditionally , either male or female ) as defined by physical differences in genetic composition and in reproductive anatomy and function . On the other hand , gender refers to the cultural , social , and psychological meanings that are associated with particular categories , like masculinity and femininity ( Wood ) which vary depending on other intersectional factors , like race , ethnicity , and culture . Historically , the terms gender and sex have been used interchangeably . Because of this , gender is often viewed as a binary a person is either male or female and it is assumed that a persons gender matches their biological sex . However , recent research challenges both of those assumptions . Although most people identify with the gender that matches their natal sex ( some of the population ( estimates range from to percent ) identify with a gender that does not match the sex they were assigned at birth ( transgender Flores , Herman , Gates , Brown , 2016 see box ) For example , an individual assigned as male based on biological characteristics may identify as female , or vice versa . Researchers have also been increasingly examining the assumption that biological sex is binary ( Reis , 2013 Hyde , Joel , Tate , van Anders , 2019 ) Although it has always been clear that there are more than two biological sexes , for example individuals who are intersex ( see box ) more recently scientists have dozens of markers of sexuality outside of the reproductive system ( eg , genetic , epigenetic , hormonal , endocrine , neurophysiological , psychological , social ) People have a range of different combinations of these characteristics , suggesting that biological sex is more complex and multifaceted than a binary category . Beyond the Binary in Biological Sex Some individuals are intersex or sex diverse that is born with either an absence or some combination of male and female reproductive organs , sex hormones , or sex chromosomes ( Auld , 2006 ) In humans , intersex individuals make up a small but proportion of world population with recent estimates ranging between and percent ( et , 2000 ) There are dozens of intersex conditions , and intersex individuals demonstrate some of the diverse variations of biological sex . Some examples of intersex conditions include Turner syndrome or the absence of , or an imperfect , second chromosome Congenital adrenal hyperplasia or a genetic disorder caused by an increased production of Androgen insensitivity syndrome or when a person has one and one chromosome , but is resistant to the male hormones or Greater attention to the rights of children born intersex is occurring in the medical , and intersex children and their parents should work closely with specialists to ensure these children develop positive gender identities . Research has also begun to conceptualize gender in ways beyond the gender binary . or gender are umbrella terms used to describe a wide range of individuals who do not identify with conform to the gender . These terms encompass a variety of more terms that individuals may use to describe themselves . Some common terms are , and . An individual who is may identify as male , female , or neither at different times and in different circumstances . An individual who is may have no gender or describe themselves as having a neutral gender , while individuals identify as two genders . It is important to remember that sex and gender do not always match and that gender is not always binary however , a large majority of prior research examining gender has not made these distinctions . As such , many of the following Gender Development 207
sections will discuss gender as a binary . Throughout , we will consider the development of children . This is a broad and heterogeneous group of children and adults whose gender development does not within societal dictates . Because societal expectations are so narrow , there are many ways not to conform , and we mention a few here , just to give a of these alternative pathways . All of them are healthy and positive , but children adolescents who follow these pathways need social validation and protection from gender discrimination and bullying . Activists are leading global movements that will push society to reinvent its views of the wide variety of gender identities that have always been with us . Transgender Children Many young children do not conform to the gender roles modeled by the culture and push back against assigned roles . However , a small percentage of children actively reject the toys , clothing , and anatomy of their assigned sex and state they prefer the toys , clothing , and anatomy of the opposite sex . A recent study suggests that approximately three percent of youth identify as transgender or identifying with a gender different from their natal sex ( Rider , Coleman , 2018 ) Many transgender adults report that they with the opposite gender as soon as they began talking ( Russo , 2016 ) Some of these children may experience gender dysphoria , or distress accompanying a mismatch between one gender identity and biological sex ( APA , 2013 ) while other children do not experience discomfort regarding their gender identity . As they grow up , some transgender individuals alter their bodies through medical interventions , such as surgery and hormonal therapy , so that their physical being is better aligned with their gender identity . However , not all transgender individuals choose to alter their bodies or physically transition . Many maintain their original anatomy but present themselves to society as a different gender , often by adopting the dress , hairstyle , mannerisms , or other characteristics typically assigned to a certain gender . It is important to note that people who , or wear clothing that is traditionally assigned to the opposite gender , such as transvestites , drag kings , and drag queens , do not necessarily identify as transgender ( although some do ) People often confuse the term transvestite , which is the practice of dressing and acting in a style or manner traditionally associated with another sex ( APA , 2013 ) with transgender . is typically a form of , entertainment , or personal style , and not necessarily an expression of one gender identity . Sexual Orientation A person sexual orientation is their emotional and sexual attraction to a particular gender . It is a personal quality that inclines people to feel romantic or sexual attraction ( or a combination of these ) to persons of a given sex or gender . According to the American Psychological Association ( APA ) 2016 ) sexual orientation also refers to a person sense of identity based on those attractions , related behaviors , and membership in a community of others who share those attractions . Sexual orientation is independent of gender for example , a transgender person may identify as heterosexual , homosexual , bisexual , pansexual , asexual , or any other kind of sexuality , just like a person . Sexual Orientation on a Continuum . Sexuality researcher Alfred was among the to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight . To classify this 208 Gender Development
continuum of heterosexuality and homosexuality , et al . 1948 ) created a rating scale that ranged from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual . Research conducted over several decades has supported this idea that sexual orientation ranges along a continuum , from exclusive attraction to the opposite gender to exclusive attraction to the same ( Carroll , 2016 ) However , sexual orientation can be in many ways . Heterosexuality , which is often referred to as being straight , is attraction to individuals of the opposite sex gender , while homosexuality , being gay or lesbian , is attraction to individuals of ones own . Bisexuality was a term traditionally used to refer to attraction to individuals of either male or female sex , but it has recently been used in models of sex and gender ( models that do not assume there are only two sexes or two genders ) to refer to attraction to any sex or gender . Alternative terms such as pansexuality and have also been developed , referring to attraction to all sexes genders and attraction to multiple sexes genders , respectively ( Carroll , 2016 ) Asexuality refers to having no sexual attraction to any sex gender . According to ( 2015 ) about one percent of the population is asexual . Being asexual is not due to any physical problems , and the lack of interest in sex does not necessarily cause the individual any distress . Asexuality is being researched as a distinct sexual orientation . Societal Expectations about Gender Gender Roles and Stereotypes Children develop within cultures that have a gender curriculum that prescribes what it means to be male and female . These include gender roles and gender stereotypes . Gender rules are the expectations associated with being male or female . Children learn at a young age that there are distinct behaviors and activities deemed to be appropriate for boys and for girls . These roles are acquired through socialization , a process through which children learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values , beliefs , and attitudes . Gender stereotyping goes one step further it involves about the attitudes , traits , or behavior patterns of women or men . For boys and men , expectations and stereotypes include characteristics like tough or brave or assertive , and for girls and women characteristics like nice and nurturing and You might be saying to yourself , but I can be most of those things , sometimes you are right . People of all genders frequently enact roles that are stereotypically assigned to only men or women . Psychological androgyny . One area of research on gender expectations has examined differences between people who identify with typically masculine or feminine gender roles . Researchers gave men and women lists of positive masculine traits ( emphasizing agency and assertiveness ) and feminine traits ( emphasizing gentleness , compassion , and awareness of others feelings ) and asked them to rate the extent to which those traits applied to them . Some people reported identifying highly with mostly masculine traits or identifying highly with mostly feminine traits , but some people did not identify strongly with either ( this group was called undifferentiated ) and a group strongly with both masculine and feminine traits this last group was called androgynous ( Bem , 1977 ) Psychological androgyny is when people display both traditionally male and female gender role characteristics people who are both strong and emotionally expressive , both caring and . Which group reported the best psychological functioning ?
On the one hand , those with more masculine traits ( the masculine and androgynous groups ) tend to have higher and lower internalizing symptoms ( 1991 2011 ) This may be because masculine traits like being , and assertive are closely related to these outcomes . On the other hand , there is a cost to missing out on feminine traits as well , since things like relationships , emotions , and communication are central to human . In general , studies Gender Development 209
that psychologically androgynous people , who report high levels of both male and female characteristics are more adaptable and ( 1996 Taylor Hall , 1982 ) and seem to fare better in general , when considering many areas of adjustment ( compared to those with masculine or feminine traits alone , et al . 2017 ) It may be no surprise that , in general , it is most adaptive to be able to draw on the whole spectrum of human traits ( Berk , 2014 ) Processes of Gender Development Four major psychological theories highlight multiple explanatory processes through which children develop gender identities . Most of these theories focus typing , which depicts the processes through which children become aware of their gender , and adopt the values , attributes , objects , and activities of members of the gender they identify as their own . A primary perspective on gender development is provided by social learning theory . Consistent with mechanistic , this theory argues that behavior is learned through observation , modeling , reinforcement , and punishment ( 1997 ) Each society has its own gender curriculum , which leads to differential expectations and treatment starting at birth . Children are rewarded and reinforced for behaving in concordance with gender roles and punished for breaking gender roles . Social learning theory also posits that children learn many of their gender roles by observing and modeling the behavior of older children and adults , and in doing so , learn the behaviors that are appropriate for each gender . In this process , fathers seem to play a particularly important role . A second perspective , consistent with , focuses on biological and neurophysiological factors that are present at birth . This theory underscores the idea , present in research on gender expression , sexual orientation , and gender identity , that children come with a biological foundation for their gender and sexual preferences these include genes , chromosomes , and hormones ( 2018 ) Like temperament , infants seem to come with gender stuff that , depending how well it matches current social categories , can how they respond to expectations and pressures for conformity . A third perspective , consistent with organismic , focuses on cognitive developmental theory . This approach holds that children understanding about gender and its meaning depend completely on their current stage of cognitive development . At birth , children have no idea that gender as a category even exists or that they may belong to one of them . As their developmental capacities grow , toddlers and then young children can successively represent and understand more and more complex aspects of identity . These cognitive stages provide some of the clearest milestones in the development of gender identity , such as the emergence of gender awareness ( the recognition of ones own gender ) and gender constancy ( the belief that gender is a fixed characteristic ) which are described in more detail below . A fourth major theory , which emphasizes the active role of the child in constructing a gender identity , is called gender schema theory . Consistent with , gender schema theory argues that children are active learners who essentially socialize themselves . In this case , children actively organize the behavior , activities , and attributes they observe into gender categories , which are known as . These then affect what children notice and remember later . People of all ages are more likely to remember behaviors and attributes than those that are . So , when they think of , people are more likely to remember men , and forget women . They also misremember information . If research participants are shown pictures of someone standing at the stove , they are more likely to remember the person to be cooking if depicted as a woman , and the person to be repairing the stove if depicted as a man . By remembering only information , gender are strengthened over time . All four processes highlighted in these theories play a role in gender development , which can be considered a process ( as depicted by social learning theory , it is shaped by the society gender curriculum , through processes of observation , modeling , reinforcement , and punishment ( as depicted by biological theories , it is built on a strong neurophysiological foundation of preferences in gender expression , sexual orientation , and gender 210 Gender Development
identity ( as explained by cognitive developmental theory , children understanding of gender shifts regularly as the complexity of their cognition grows and ( as explained by gender schema theory , a childs gender identity is a work in progress , actively constructed through their own efforts and engagement with their social worlds . Most recently , researchers have drawn on broader more integrative dynamic systems approaches to understand the development of gender identity ( 2012 Martin Ruble , 2010 ) These approaches attempt to explain how complex patterns of thought , behavior , and experience undergo qualitative shifts , including disruption , transformation , and reorganization , during different developmental windows . Researchers argue that ongoing physical interactions and psychological experiences with parents , peers , and culture fundamentally shape and reshape their experience of gender developmentally , as different brain and body systems couple and uncouple over time In the end , gender is not a stable achievement , but rather a pattern in time ( 2012 , 405 ) continually building on prior dynamics and adapting to current environments ( Diamond , 113 ) Milestones in Gender Development . Intrinsic gender and temperament . Research seems to suggest that newborns come with a neurophysiological package of gender stuff that provides an internal anchor for their ( at least ) gender identity and sexual orientation , and perhaps temperamental characteristics , such as activity level , aggression , effortful control , and emotional reactivity . These internal anchors and expressive preferences seem to be part of an individual core identity . Scientists are not exactly sure what determines these intrinsic anchors so far evidence suggests both genetic ( as seen in twin studies , which that sexual orientation and sexual run in families Van , 2006 ) and the of the prenatal environment ( maternal levels , antibodies to male hormones , van de Beek , 2005 ) Although each individual core identity likely exhibits some degree of malleability , which may make it easier for children to conform to society dictates , advocates and parents of children are on one thing These core identities are often clear to children and they can not be ignored , subverted , or through external pressures ( et , 2006 ) Moreover , it violates rights as humans , when parents or other members of society attempt to do so . Development of Sexual Orientation According to current understanding , individuals are usually aware of their sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence . this is not always the case , and some do not become aware of their sexual orientation until much later in life . It is not necessary to participate in sexual activity to be aware of these emotional , romantic , and physical attractions people can be celibate and still recognize their sexual orientation . Some researchers argue that sexual orientation is not static and inborn but is instead and changeable throughout the lifespan . There is no consensus regarding the exact reasons why an individual holds a particular sexual orientation . Research has examined possible biological , developmental , social , and cultural on sexual orientation , but there has been no evidence that links sexual orientation to only one factor ( APA , 2016 ) However , evidence for biological explanations , including genetics , birth order , and hormones , will be summarized since many scientists argue that biological processes occurring during the embryonic and and early postnatal life play the central organizing role in sexual orientation ( 2018 ) Genetics . Using both twin and familial studies , heredity provides one biological explanation for orientation . Bailey and ( 1991 ) studied pairs of male twins and found that the concordance rate for Gender Development 211
identical twins was 52 , while the rate for fraternal twins was only 22 . Bailey , and ( 1993 ) studied female twins and found a similar difference with a concordance rate of 48 for identical twins and 16 for fraternal twins . Schwartz , Kim , Sanders ( 2010 ) found that gay men had more gay male relatives than straight men , and sisters of gay men were more likely to be lesbians than sisters of straight men . Fraternal Birth Order . The fraternal birth order effect indicates that the probability of a boy identifying as gay increases for each older brother born to the same mother ( 2018 , 2001 ) According to et al . the increased incidence of homosexuality in males with older brothers results from a progressive immunization of the mother against a male protein that plays a key role in interactions , in the process of synapse formation , as cited in , 2018 , 234 ) A indicated that the fraternal birth order effect explains the sexual orientation of between 15 and 29 of gay men . Hormones . Excess or exposure to hormones during prenatal development has also been theorized as an explanation for sexual orientation . of females exposed to abnormal amounts of prenatal , a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia ( identify as bisexual or lesbian ( van de Beek , 2005 ) In contrast , too little exposure to prenatal may affect male sexual orientation by not the male brain ( 2011 ) Gender awareness . At about age , toddlers cognitive development allows them to begin to create categories to organize their conceptual thinking about the world . Gender is one of these categories . The ability to classify oneself as male or female is called gender awareness . Children biological and sexual are built during conception and prenatal development , so they are typically assigned a biological sex at birth , but before toddlers develop the cognitive capacity to categorize , they are blissfully unaware of their gender . Although they have likely been receiving differential treatment from family members since they were born , it is not until they are able to recognize this category and apply it to themselves , that gender becomes psychologically real . Once small children become aware of gender categories , they begin taking notes about the differences between people in these two categories names , colors , toys , jewelry , clothes , hair length , voices , behavior , and so on . Baby . It is important to note that , in a world without a gender curriculum , the list children would make of the differences between males and females would be very short It would include only secondary sexual characteristics of adults and adolescents who are . Babies and children would not be distinguishable by because they have no secondary sexual characteristics . We can imagine a thought experiment in which no one is subject to a gender curriculum . Imagine that each of us receives an envelope at birth with information about our biologically assigned sex inside , but we are not allowed to open it until it becomes relevant , that is , until we reach puberty . In this thought experiment , our parents and society would have to raise us so we would be ready to take on either gender role . They would have to select names , colors for the nursery and our clothes , toys , and so on . Many students this idea intriguing but also a bit unsettling . A similar thought experiment was described in an article in 1972 in Magazine entitled The Story of , which describes parents who decided to raise their child without revealing its gender to the world ( Gould , Gender Development
1972 ) Several real parents , in Europe and the US , have also decided to raise their children without revealing their gender . It is fascinating to see how this kind of decision has been received by the media and by other parents . In each case , the of media attention was so dramatic that parents decided to withdraw their stories ( and their children ) from scrutiny by the press . Although ( and parents ) can argue about the decision to shield children from society stereotypes as opposed to helping them recognize , counter , and transcend these stereotypes , the hysteria surrounding decisions to conceal a childs gender are very telling about society view of the centrality of gender to every child identity , and right to Gender . When gender awareness emerges during early childhood , a key part of the gender schema young children construct includes the notion that any gender categories that they observe are malleable . Because smal children in the stage of cognitive development are not capable of inferring the essential underlying characteristics of gender ( just as they can not infer the characteristics of other categories , like animate objects ) they see gender assignments as temporary and changeable . Most young children believe that a person can change from female to male ( or vice versa ) by cutting their hair or changing their clothes . Little boys often report that they will grow up to be Moms with babies in their tummies little girls that they will grow up to be Dads . Many adults can remember this state of awareness . For example , one of our students told us about her preschool class in which all the were boys she thought that when she turned , she would also become a boy . She was looking forward to the transformation , the same way children look forward to getting taller or older or better at riding a bike . Because many children discuss their desires ( and plans ) to cross gender lines , parents of or transgender children often see these kinds of declarations as a phase that children will get over . Parents can not easily tell when children statements real underlying convictions that they do not internally identify with the gender roles or expressions that have been assigned to them . However , some gender variant or transgender adults report that their real gender identity was already very clear to them at this age , and parents of such children also that their children were letting them know through word and deed . In fact , the clarity and insistence on a gender variant identity at such a young age ( and in the face of such enormous pressure to conform ) provides some of the most convincing evidence that children come with their own gender and sexual orientation . At the same time , this narrative does not describe the only pathway . Some gender variant adults report that it was not until they were much older ( and sometimes with the aid of therapeutic support ) that they were able to understand what happening to them in terms of gender identity and development . Gender expression . The gender differences that show up in a childs gender schema at this age depend on the local social context that the child experiences , which is why many parents decide to minimize young children exposure to . At the same time , for parents who do expect their children to conform to cultural prescriptions for dress , toys , and activities , this is the age at which some parents of gender or variant children may begin to notice that their child has not gotten the cultural memo . Parents report unease about their boys exploration of clothes ( such as dresses , tutus , tiaras ) accessories ( such as high heels , purses , barrettes ) toys ( especially dolls and doll clothes ) and is why these children have sometimes been dubbed pink boys . Note that there has been no parallel study of blue girls , because do not as frequently alarm their parents at this age . Girls who play with masculine toys often do not face the same ridicule from adults or peers that boys face when they want to play with feminine toys ( Leaper , 2015 ) Girls also face less ridicule when playing a masculine role ( like doctor ) as opposed to a boy who wants to take a feminine role ( like caregiver ) For an interesting segment on , see Why girls can be but cant be As explained by ( 2012 ) That because girls gain status by Gender Development 213
moving into boy space , while boys are tainted by the slightest whiff of femininity . Theres a lot more privilege to being a man in our society , says Diane , a psychologist at the University of California , San Francisco , who supports allowing children to be what she calls gender creative . When a boy wants to act like a girl , it subconsciously shakes our , because why would someone want to be the lesser gender ?
Boys are up to seven times as likely as girls to referred to gender clinics for psychological evaluations . Sometimes the boys violation is as mild as wanting a Barbie or Christmas . By comparison , most girls referred to gender clinics are far more extreme in their they want names , boy pronouns and , sometimes , boy Creation of a . middle One surprisingly simple rule for parents who wish to encourage gender exploration and expansion is that Colors are just colors , clothes are just clothes , and toys are just toys , meaning that these societal prescriptions are not developmentally real or meaningful . Researchers refer to the overlap between male and female expectations and stereotypes as the middle space , and suggest that an important role for adults to take on is the expansion of this middle With the sanctioning of the tomboy identity , society has begun to allow girls to take up residence in this middle space . Its expansion for girls and its creation for boys are next steps for all of us . In general , the wider the gender expression enjoyed by children of all genders ( girls in sports , boys in cooking , and so on ) the healthier gender identity development is likely to be . Gender constancy . When children reach the concrete operational stage of cognitive development ( between ages and ) they are able to infer that , according to societal dictates , the essential feature of maleness is , traditionally , based on genitalia . This is also the age at which children are able to infer the inverse principle If genitalia dictate gender , then all males by necessity have penises and all females have they are often happy to announce at Kindergarten or in other public places . Following from this discovery , children also begin to grasp the fact that their assignment into gender categories is permanent , unchangeable , or constant . The realization that one is a member of the boys club or the girls club typically leads to greater interest and more focus on the membership requirements for their particular club . In stereotyped social , children attitude toward conformity to markers may shift from descriptive to prescriptive , in which children so highly identify with markers from their own club , that they begin to denigrate or become repelled by markers of the wrong club . These behaviors become visible in boys resistance to being asked to wear girl colors or play girl It is also noticeable in children attempts to enforce these categories on directly through instructions ( you have to ride a girls bike ) and statements of fact ( this slide is only for boys , or indirectly through teasing , taunting , criticism , and ridicule towards any child who crosses the lines . For children or transgender children , this is an age where the psychological costs of gender boxes and lines can become apparent . At this age , children can start to sense ( or clearly know ) that they have been permanently assigned to a biological sex that comes with a narrow gender expression or an eventually body whose physicality is not consonant with their own internal needs or identity . If so , then confusion or ( more or less strong ) feelings of gender dissonance may emerge . In the clinical literature , these feelings are sometimes labeled gender dysphoria to indicate the sadness and desperation that children may feel when they realize that they have been permanently assigned to the wrong gender expression , gender identity , biological sex . 214 Gender Development
The dangers of pushing children into boxes . advocates point out how crucial it is to create some space for children around these issues to allow them to out for themselves where they stand on the many dimensions of gender . For some children , exploring gender expression is just need to spend time in the middle If we have to categorize , these children are gender in expression , but in identity and sexual orientation . This can be seen in how annoyed some pink boys who wear dresses and long hair become when people mistake them for girls ( 2012 ) When asked why this was so annoying , one little guy named . told the reporter about a boy in his class who is a soccer fanatic . He comes to school every day in a soccer jersey and sweat pants , said , but that doesnt make him a professional soccer as if these children need to remind adults about the essential features of male and female biological sex . could say , still have a penis , so I am still a boy . For other children , exploring gender expression is the beginning of the realization that their sexual orientation may not be heterosexual , that they may be gay , lesbian , bisexual . Some writers have tried to quantify the numbers of boys , suggesting that of boys display nonconforming gender behavior , and of these grow up to be gay men ( 2012 ) The same tendency is suggested for lesbian women , most of whom as It seems that these numbers would be very to , given that more than 75 of women identify as and most of them are heterosexual , and given the stringent attempts to shove gender nonconforming boys back into their boxes which means that we are only observing the most determined and tenacious nonconforming boys . For some children , gender behavior is the beginning of the realization that they are transgender . Some children are very clear on this early on , and insist on names , pronouns , and gender expressions that are consonant with their own internal convictions about their actual gender . Other children need the opportunity to explore and question , and they may not become clear on their sexual orientation or transgender status until they reach puberty or later . Parents of gender children . Gender children may be more or less clear about why they need to explore the middle space , but some parents are just confused . Most of us have been fully socialized in the current gender curriculum and so any activity outside those lines and boxes may seem deeply wrong or even That is always the way with strong societal norms . In the , if a woman showed a glimpse of ankle , she was considered to be immoral in the , women wearing pants and short hair were seen as unnatural in the , boys whose hair touched their collars were suspended from school . Gender children provide their adults with the opportunity and motivation to improve society in ways that are more positive for everyone . The need that all children have for their parents full love and support its not their job to make sure were all encourages adults to grow outside of their comfort zones , Parent Of gender , Child and to develop into better parents . As Brill and Pepper ( 2008 ) point out , It takes courage to follow the path of love . They provide many good strategies and resources for parents who are trying to follow this path . They point out that some of parents reluctance can be based on their fear of others looking down on them and criticizing their parenting . We think that many parents can relate to this in little ways , such as when a child throws a in the store or we are called into school for a childs infraction . We are Gender Development 215
worried that our parenting is inadequate or that others will think we are inferior parents . That is one important reason why Brill and Pepper ( 2008 ) insist that parents get support for themselves ( from therapists or groups of parents ) so the they will be able in turn to provide acceptance and support for their children . Some of the reluctance of parents of transgender children can be based in grief over the loss of their previous child . We think that many parents can also relate to this we look at photos of our children as babies and young children , we miss those darling little versions of our children . At the same time , we know that they are still there in the core identity of our older children . And parents of gender variant children can be comforted with the idea that the essence of their child , their child core , is still there , and still intact . Most parents also feel vindicated when they see their child distress and depression lift ( some children are actually suicidal ) and watch them bloom in their new identity , showing joy and delight in the free expression of their authentic selves . Dealing with discrimination and bullying . An important part of parents reluctance to support gender variant children can be based on fears about the reactions their children may encounter in school , church , or other public places . Parents are not wrong about these reactions , and their desire to protect their children is understandable . These same issues have been faced by parents of children who belong to racial , ethnic , and cultural also have to face messages of hate , discrimination , and oppression . One difference may be that some parents feel that their gender variant child could avoid all these upsetting experiences if only they would conform , whereas most Black parents do not see the solution to racism as encouraging their children to pass as white . Research on parenting children from racial and ethnic minority backgrounds suggests that the most helpful approach involves proud support for a child minority status and engaged participation with minority communities , combined with realistic training about how to deal constructively with incidents of intolerance . Some parenting guides suggest strategies organized around the notions of ( Talk speak up for what you believe ( Walk a safe space and ( Squawk someone who will support you . At the same time , many parents may surprise themselves by becoming staunch advocates for their children rights and activists in the larger societal movement for gender respect and equality . Luckily , as parents work hard to see that their children are treated fairly everywhere they go , there are good programs that can be used to improve schools . These programs train teachers , administrators , and staff how to celebrate and support gender diversity . The good news is that such trainings can have positive effects for everyone involved . Gender latency . A fourth major developmental milestone takes place during middle childhood , sometimes referred to as the latency stage or phase , and loosely modeled after Freud description of children psychosexual stages . During this period ( about ages or until puberty ) children seem to be less active in working out issues explicitly to gender or sexual identity . In general , children seem to be more mellow or laid back about the whole gender thing , largely recognizing that scripts about ( like colors , behaviors , or activities ) are conventions and not true moral issues . At this age , children seem to relax their enforcement of gender rules and the of the opposite sex begins to fade . Many gender variant children , during this period , also seem to relax , maybe deciding that is more trouble than it is worth , and so ( at least temporarily ) adopting that are more aligned with their biological sex . For parents who are worried about the effects of gender stereotypes , it can feel like your child has made it safely through the gender curriculum and come out whole on the other side . For parents who are worried about their children , it can also feel like the problem has been solved and it was ( after all ) just a phase . 216 Gender Development
. Puberty and the gender police . A major milestone in gender development is ushered in by puberty , which usually starts between ages for girls and between ages for boys . The reality of biological changes in both primary and secondary sexual characteristics seems to trigger a major shift , not only in children neurophysiology , but also in their psychological systems and social relationships . When puberty strikes , the issue of what it means to be male and female in this historical moment seems to come to center stage , and teenagers in middle school and early high school seem to be trying to enact and rigidly enforce all of society current stereotypes about gender . This process is labeled gender intensification and it will be more or less intense depending on the local culture , their stereotypes , and the rigidity with which they are viewed . Gender . This is the moment at which adolescents seem to want to wring any gender variation out of themselves and their peers , and this goes for kids who vary on expression , identity , sexual orientation , and transgender basically includes everyone . So pressure is exerted on girls to look and act more like we see girls try to bring themselves into line with cultural stereotypes about the value of beauty through increased use of , clothes , and hairstyles as well as through a focus on diet , exercise , and eating disorders we also see normative losses in as girls themselves unable to reach these idealized female appearances and increasingly internalize a negative body image . The pressure that is exerted on boys to look and act like boys can be observed as boys try to bring themselves into line with cultural stereotypes about the value of power , through adolescents increased use of aggression and bullying , boys frequent lapses into silence , as well as increased focus on body building and the abuse of steroids . Both genders are at risk for the opposite can regard boyfriends as status objects just as boys can regard girls as sexual targets . Perhaps surprisingly , the local external pressures to adhere to societal gender stereotypes seem to originate largely within gender , in that girls tighten the screws on other girls to conform whereas boys are the ones who are pressuring other boys . During early adolescence , some researchers refer to the phase of gender as a period that is run by the gender It is important to note that the gender harassment and bullying that is still so common in schools and neighborhoods is often aimed at heterosexual youth who do not conform to societal boxes and lines , such as boys who are small , slight , and shy . Of course , the further that a child strays over gender lines , the more they are likely to become targets of harassment and bullying , not only by peers but also by parents , teachers , and societal institutions . Gender contraction . In a way this phase could also be referred to as a period of gender contraction , in that some adolescents fall over themselves to jump back into the boxes and over the lines prescribed by society , especially in terms of gender expression . the onset of puberty also brings additional biological information to some adolescents , indicating ( or verifying ) that they may be ( or are ) gay , lesbian , bisexual , queer , or transgender . This new information ( or clarity ) comes at exactly the same time that the external world brings increased pressure for them to conform . Such social pressures ( and the internal pressures they can create ) can collide with adolescents natural urges to create confusion and internal gridlock . For some youth , when their internal states ( biological urges , gender identity , and sexual orientation ) are aligned , they may achieve internal , I gay ( or lesbian or bisexual ) Some adults describe this process as coming out to But for many gender variant youth , external pressure homophobia can make this process feel very confusing and dangerous . For these children , their adolescent peers ( often parents , siblings , and teachers ) feel more like gender Pause on puberty . For some youth , the beginnings of puberty may trigger an awareness of ( or verify ) their transgender My body is going the wrong direction ! In fact , one cutting edge strategy for children who may be transgender is to stop the using hormone blockers that halt the onset of puberty . This strategy creates a space that preserves children options . It is much easier Gender Development 217
physiologically to transition to another gender before puberty has been completed . This allows for a transition that is more complete and requires fewer surgeries . For parents of transgender children who want to give their child the opportunity to make an autonomous informed decision , the use of hormone blockers allows children to continue developing cognitively so that their decision can be made using all the capacities of formal operations . Families also from the participation of experienced therapists and physicians , who can help guide them in the sequence and timing of each step . advocates also insist that it is important to follow the child lead , and not to get ahead of them . Some families can be so confused by a childs gender expression that they pressure the child to change their biological sex in order to produce a child who is culturally aligned in expression , identity , and biology . In fact , as previously mentioned , many transgender individuals do not choose to make a physical transition at all . In every case , children need full family support in order to negotiate the external pressures they will likely experience and otherwise internalize . If transgender teens decide to transition during high school , some experts recommend allowing the child to take a year off from school or be for a year , so that they are sheltered from external scrutiny . Some families also decide that the child should then return with their new identity to a different school , but other transgender teens report that an important part of the process of is the experience of winning over support from their current peers . In their stories of transition ( 2014 ) some teens seem remarkably understanding of the reluctance and they experience in forging a new identity , even though all of them make clear that such resistance ( and in many cases overt hostility ) causes real pain and suffering . Identity development during college and the freedom to explore and expand . For many youth , the full development of an authentic gender identity does take place until after high school , which is why the college years are such a common time for gender and youth to be working on issues of gender identity and orientation . Developmentally , these are good years for many reasons . In most strata of society , the gender police start to fade during and , by emerging adulthood , most forms of gender expression are again as conventions and not as moral prescriptions , so the previously intense external pressures are often more ( on local geographical and religious perspectives ) Youth themselves have newly emerging capacities to on their own internalized stereotypes shame , allowing them to be able to rework for themselves their own attitudes about gender and sexuality . Because many students are working on these issues , college is also a place where questioning youth can more easily open understanding social and sexual partners with whom they can safely explore these issues . Moreover , college campuses can be places that provide formal resources ( Queer Resource Center , groups ) and informal role models , that encourage youth to discover , liberate , and celebrate their authentic selves . Exploration and commitment . During the years of emerging adulthood , many youth are out that they can create their own narratives about what it means to be male and female in society . Many will a positive appraisal of their assigned sex as an anchor of their gender identity , but at the same time accept and enjoy a set of expressions , activities , and roles that are vastly expanded compared to societal stereotypes . In fact , increasingly , many will come to view the middle space as occupying pretty much all the space depicting gender roles , so much so that for many young adults , the issues surrounding biological sex , that is , being male or female , begin to shrink until gender is a very small , almost incidental , part of their identity . Of course , young adults often return to these issues and what 218 Gender Development
they mean as they approach the developmental task of intimacy , which is often worked on in the context of sexual relationships . Some youth report that emerging adulthood was a good time for them to deal with these issues because they needed to wait until they had worked out other aspects of their identity so they could be strong and enough to face and explore issues of sexual orientation and gender identity in a society that is so openly hostile to gender expansion . For example , some youth reported feeling mixed up about gender identity and sexual orientation . Some transgender youth felt that they were not allowed to be sexually attracted to people who were of the sex opposite to their original biological sex . For example , if I am assigned a female biological sex at birth and later realize that I am an ( transgender ) male , what does it mean if I am attracted to biological males ?
Does that threaten my identity as an male ?
During early adulthood , transgender youth can come to accept what experts transgender status and sexual orientation are separate issues . An male who is attracted to other men is a gay transgender male person . All combinations are possible . Differences As part of the study of gender development , researchers are also interested in examining differences in psychological characteristics and behaviors . Researchers who favor different perspectives often assume that gender differences are due to underlying differences in biology ( consistent with ) or differences in socialization ( consistent with mechanistic ) However , consistent with , to date most of the differences that have been found have turned out to be a complex combination of neurophysiological sex differences ( eg . the effects of sex hormones on behavior ) gender roles ( differences in how men and women are supposed to act ) gender stereotypes ( differences in how we think men and women are ) and gender socialization . What are these gender differences ?
Research suggests that they are concentrated in six areas . Activity level . In terms of temperament , boys show higher activity levels starting at birth , as seen in differences in muscle tone , muscle mass , and movement as they get older , boys remain somewhat more active and have more in activities that require holding still . Some of the biggest differences involve the play styles of children . Boys frequently play organized games in large groups , while girls often play activities in much smaller groups ( 1998 ) Verbal ability . Girls develop language skills earlier and know more words than boys . They show slightly higher verbal abilities , including reading and writing , all throughout school , and are somewhat more emotionally expressive ( of fear and sadness , but not anger ) ability . Boys perform slightly better than girls on tests of ability ( tests of mentally rotating objects ) differences which can later be seen in activities like map reading or sports that require spatial orientation . Verbal and physical aggression . Starting at about the age of , boys exhibit higher rates of unprovoked physical aggression than girls , although no gender differences have been found in provoked aggression ( Hyde , 2005 ) At every age , boys show higher levels of physical aggression , but starting in adolescence , girls show higher levels of relational aggression ( social shunning , gossiping , power exertion ) and behavior . At about the same age that gender differences in aggression emerge ( approximately age ) gender differences also emerge in levels of , compliance , empathy , and behavior . Girls show better behavioral and emotional , whereas boys have more trouble minding and following rules and routines . As they get older boys are also slightly less able to suppress inappropriate responses and slightly more likely to blurt things out than girls ( Hyde , Goldsmith , Van , 2006 ) At the same time , girls are also more likely to offer praise , to agree with the person they talking to , Gender Development 219
and to elaborate on the other person comments boys , in contrast , are more likely to assert their opinion and offer criticisms ( Leaper Smith , 2004 ) The combination of higher levels of aggression and lower levels of regulation is a primary reason why , compared to girls , boys at every age are more likely to be disciplined ( as well as suspended and expelled ) in school . Developmental vulnerability . One of the biggest and most consistent set of gender differences between girls and boys is found in the area of developmental vulnerability . Boys are more likely than girls to show markers of a wide range of biological and psychological vulnerabilities , including prenatal and stress and disease ( lower survival rates in premature birth , higher rates of infant mortality and death from ) learning disabilities ( dyslexia , speech defects , mental retardation ) neurological conditions ( autism , attention disorder , hyperactivity ) and mental health conditions ( disorder , schizophrenia ) Starting in early adolescence , compared to girls , boys are more likely to be involved in acts of behavior , delinquency , and violent crime , and to be incarcerated . Unlike differences in psychological characteristics , which tend to be small and inconsistent , gender differences in these markers of vulnerability tend to be large and robust . For example , rates of and autism are times higher in boys , and over 90 of inmates are male . Differences in diagnosis may represent actual differences in incidence , or conditions may present differently in girls than in boys . The only mental health conditions more prevalent in girls are internalizing disorders ( depression and anxiety ) but boys have higher rates of completed suicide at every age , with an increasing gap over adulthood , until by , future article age 65 over 70 of suicides are committed by men . Magnitude of gender differences . It is important to note that , with the exception of differences in physical characteristics ( height and muscle mass ) and developmental vulnerability , gender differences in psychological characteristics and behaviors tend to be quite small , inconsistent , and change over historical time . Even where gender differences are found , there is a great deal of variation among females and among males , meaning that individual boys are very different from one another as are individual girls . As a result , knowing someones gender does not help in predicting their actual attributes or behaviors . For example , in terms of activity level , boys are considered more active than girls . However , 42 of girls are more active than the average boy ( but so are 50 of boys ) Figure depicts this phenomenon in a comparison of male and female . The two show the range in es within boys and within girls , and there is enormous overlap . The average gender difference , shown by the arrow at the top of the , is tiny compared to the variation within gender . People 220 Figure . While our gender stereotypes paint males and females as drastically different from each other , even when a difference exists , there is considerable overlap in the levels of that trait between genders . This graph shows the average difference in between boys and girls . Boys have a higher average than girls , but the average scores are much more similar than different . This visualization was created based on Hyde , 2005 and Cohen effect sizes reported in et al , 1999 . Females Males Scores Gender Development
Furthermore , few gender differences innate biological differences , but instead complex mixtures of neurophysiological and social factors , with a special emphasis on the societal and familial gender curriculum that creates sets of differential opportunities , treatment , and experiences for girls and boys . For example , one small gender difference is that boys show better spatial abilities than girls . However , and ( 2010 ) gave girls the chance to practice their spatial skills ( by imagining a line drawing was different shapes ) and discovered that , with practice , this gender difference completely disappeared . Likewise , those differences also disappear in groups of girls who are involved in sports which require spatial practice . The fact that gender differences that previously were ( boys performed better on math achievement tests during early adolescence ) have disappeared over time suggests that they are largely a function of environmental differences ( in this case , the number of math classes taken ) Some of the most interesting research on gender differences today critiques this entire area of work and argues that many domains that we assume differ across genders , including some described here in your textbook , are really based on gender stereotypes and not actual differences . Researchers conducted large ( statistical analyses that allow researchers to systematically combine across an entire body of studies ) of thousands of studies across more than a million participants , and concluded that Girls are not more fearful , shy , or scared of new things than boys boys are not more angry than girls and girls are not more emotional than boys boys do not perform better at math than girls and girls are not more talkative than boys ( Hyde , 2005 ) These have also been conducted on studies involving adults , with much the same conclusion ( Reis , 2013 Hyde , Joel , Tate , van Anders , 2019 ) Liberating Society from Status Hierarchies of Gender and Sexuality Societies play a crucial role in gender development by trying to dictate hierarchies of human worth based on gender and sexuality . Gender is and so status hierarchies cover biological sex , gender expression , sexual orientation , and identity . Hierarchies are apparent in the relative value placed on males versus females , on people who are heterosexual versus lesbian , gay , bisexual , queer , and transgender , and on people who conform to the gender binary versus people who do not . Some of these hierarchies are enshrined in law , for example , when women were not allowed to vote , or homosexuality was illegal , or laws refuse to recognize the legitimacy of transgender sexual identities . These status hierarchies are enforced in all the ways we discussed in previous readings on of development , including implicit bias , prejudice , stereotypes , segregation , exclusion , and discrimination . Discrimination persists throughout the lifespan in the form of obstacles to education , or lack of access to political , and social power . Status hierarchies also involve entrenched myths about who fall into different rungs of the societal ladders of these hierarchies , and cover stories that membership in some of these groups is voluntary and something youth should get over . The negative stories society tells are hurtful , especially if children and youth internalize them . At the same time , the development of people at the top of these hierarchies can also be adversely affected , as when narrow of masculinity can impede the development of boys and men , and narrow of heterosexuality can interfere with the sexual exploration of youth . Societal myths about gender minorities are especially harmful when they infect parents and families who are supposed to be protecting children and promoting their development . For children from racial and ethnic minority backgrounds , their staunchest supporters typically are parents , extended family , and racial and ethnic communities , who counteract these myths and provide of positivity , pride , and cultural heritage . However , for children from gender minorities , parents and families may not serve this vital role . Because parents often do not share their child gender identity , and may sometimes even harbor entrenched myths of revulsion , children from gender minorities do not always have the layers of protection provided by extended family , that serve to buffer them from the worst of prejudices . In fact , some of the most hurtful messages may come from family and friends . These status hierarchies and the entrenched myths used to enforce them create hazardous conditions for the development of children and youth . A growing realization of their extent and severity should create an even greater sense urgency for taking collective action Gender Development 221
to abolish them . In the meantime women groups and the community are creating safe spaces where their members can experience the support and validation they deserve and develop strategies for resistance and resilience . These issues are of global concern ( WHO , 2011 ) Although we are rightfully worried about status hierarchies in the US , many countries around the world have much worse ( and sometimes ) conditions for women and girls , youth and adults , and gender minorities . For example , in some countries where gender preferences are pronounced , it is no longer legal to give parents information on the sex of their fetus because selective abortion of females has created a gender imbalance that is noticeable at the national level . In many cultures , women do not have access to basic rights ( to education , freedom of movement , choice of spouses and sexual partners , etc . and sexual minorities who express their preferences openly do so at risk of imprisonment and death . What are the impacts of enforcing gender stereotypes and valuing or particular gender identities ?
Like all status hierarchies , these societal conditions exert a downward pressure on healthy development . In the United States , the stereotypes that boys should be strong , forceful , active , dominant , and rational , and that girls should be pretty , subordinate , unintelligent , emotional , and talkative are portrayed in children toys , books , commercials , video games , movies , television shows , and music . These messages dictate not only how people should act , but also the opportunities they are given , how they are treated , and the extent to which they can grow into their full potential . Even into college and professional school , women are less vocal in class and much more at risk for sexual harassment from teachers , coaches , classmates , and professors . These patterns are also found in social interactions and in media messages . In adulthood , these differences are reflected in income gaps between men and women ( women working time earn about 74 percent the income of men ) in higher rates of women targeted for rape and domestic violence , higher rates of eating disorders for females , and in higher rates of violent death for men in young adulthood . The effects of discrimination and bullying can also be seen in disparities in physical and mental health for youth who belong to minority gender identities and sexual ( see boxes ) Although researchers and other adults are rightfully concerned about these disparities , it is important not to buy into assumptions , where researchers assume that children and youth at the bottom of these status hierarchies ( females and those with minority gender identities and sexual ) are somehow at risk , vulnerable , or less We need to protect all children youth from social contextual conditions that are dangerous for their development , but just like youth from ethnic racial minorities , youth from sexual and gender minorities generally grow up whole , healthy , and resilient . Optional Reading In this brief article , authors Leaper and Brown ( 2018 ) summarize on the impact that gender roles , stereotypes , and on children development . In three sections ( beginning on page ) their paper reviews recent research on how these factors impact development in areas of gender identity and expression , academic achievement , and harassment , respectively . Click here to read Leaper Brown ( 2018 ) Sexism in childhood and adolescence Recent trends and advances in research . Child development perspectives 12 ( Note There is some disagreement among researchers on the exact meaning of the term The authors of this paper use the term sexism to refer to gender roles , stereotypes , discrimination , biases ( positive and negative ) and gender differences , as well as general beliefs , and expectations about gender . We prefer the usage of sexism as referring to gender discrimination in line with the status hierarchy defined above ( ie . with women and individuals at the bottom ) that gender discrimination 222 Gender Development
refers to any discrimination on the basis of gender ( against men or women ) and although concepts such as gender roles and gender are related to sexism , they are distinct ideas and better referred to with more precise terms . Discrimination based on Sexual Orientation . The United States is heteronormative , meaning that society supports heterosexuality as the norm . Consider , for example , that homosexuals are often asked , When did you know you were gay ?
but heterosexuals are rarely asked , When did you know you were straight ?
2011 ) Living in a culture that privileges heterosexuality has a impact on the ways in which heterosexual people are able to develop and express their sexuality . Open of one sexual orientation may be hindered by homophobia which encompasses a range of negative attitudes and stereotypes toward homosexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being lesbian , gay , bisexual , or transgender ( It can be expressed as antipathy , contempt , prejudice , aversion , or hatred it may be based on irrational fear and is sometimes related to religious beliefs ( Carroll , 2016 ) Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior , such as discrimination and violence on the basis of sexual that are . Recognized types of homophobia include institutionalized homophobia , such as religious and homophobia , and internalized homophobia in which people with attractions internalize , or believe , society negative views hatred of themselves . Sexual minorities regularly experience stigma , harassment , discrimination , and violence based on their sexual orientation ( Carroll , 2016 ) Research has shown that gay , lesbian , and bisexual teenagers are at a higher risk of depression and suicide due to exclusion from social groups , rejection from peers and family , and negative media portrayals of homosexuals ( et , 2010 ) Discrimination can occur in the workplace , in housing , at schools , and in numerous public settings . Major policies to prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation have only come into effect in the United States in the last few years . The majority of empirical and clinical research on populations are done with largely white , class , samples . This demographic limits our understanding of more marginalized populations that are also affected by racism , classism , and other forms of oppression . In the United States , individuals may themselves in a double minority , in which they are not fully accepted or understood by Caucasian communities and are also not accepted by their own ethnic group ( Tye , 2006 ) Many people experience racism in in the dominant community where racial stereotypes merge with gender stereotypes . Discrimination based on Gender Minority status . Gender nonconforming people are much more likely to experience harassment , bullying , and violence based on their gender identity they also experience much higher rates of discrimination in housing , employment , healthcare , and education ( 2019 National Center for Transgender Equality , 2015 ) Transgender individuals of color face additional , social , and interpersonal challenges , in comparison to the transgender community as a Gender Development 223
whole , as a result of structural racism . Black transgender people reported the highest level of discrimination among all transgender individuals of color . As members of several intersecting minority groups , transgender people of color , and transgender women of color in particular , are especially vulnerable to employment discrimination , health disparities , harassment , and violence . Consequently , they face even greater obstacles than white transgender individuals and members of their own race . Effects of Gender Minority Discrimination on Mental Health . Using data from over college students , et al . 2019 ) examined mental health disparities among several gender groups , including those identifying as , transgender , and gender nonconforming . Results indicated that participants who as transgender and gender nonconforming had higher levels of anxiety and depression than those identifying as , et al . explained the higher rates of anxiety and depression using the minority stress model , which holds that an social environment results in both external and internal stress which can take a toll on mental health . External stressors include discrimination , harassment , and prejudice , while internal stressors include negative thoughts , feelings and emotions resulting from societal messages about one identity . et al . recommend that mental health services be made accessible that are sensitive to both gender minority and sexual minority status . How do we create social for children and youth ?
Starting at birth , children learn the social meanings of gender from their society and culture . Gender roles expectations are especially portrayed in children toys , books , commercials , video games , movies , television shows and music ( 2017 ) Therefore , when children make choices regarding their gender , expression , or behavior that do not conform to gender stereotypes , it is important that they feel supported by the caring adults in their lives . This support allows children to feel valued , resilient , and develop a secure sense of self ( American Academy of Pediatricians , 2015 ) People who care about the healthy gender development of children and youth , like their parents , families , friends , classmates , schools , and communities , can create local of celebration and validation that allow all children to form complex and multifaceted gender identities . Collective social movements around and women rights are having many positive effects in changing current status hierarchies , which will result in social contextual conditions that are better for all our development . Developmental psychologists , psychiatrists , and pediatricians can play important roles in creating support for children , youth , and families . For example , in a recent paper on the development of transgender youth , Diamond ( 2020 ) points out that , physicians and psychologists lack of knowledge about transgender and identities can be a barrier to competent care ( American Psychological Association , 2015 ) Current practice guidelines for both the medical and psychological treatment of transgender youth adopt a model of care , which views gender variation as a basic form of human diversity rather than an inherent pathology , and which takes a multifaceted approach to supporting and youth experienced gender identity and reducing psychological distress Providing more time , support , and information about the full range of gender diversity , and the fact that gender expressions and identities may change dynamically across different stages of development , may help facilitate more effective decisions about social and medical transitions ( Developmental researchers can also make contributions by continuing to explore these complex issues . For example , few studies have been conducted to date , and so more research is needed , on the development of biases ( preferences for ones own gender ) reactions to gender norm violations , awareness of preferential treatment , gender prejudice and discrimination , and bullying based on gender variation ( Martin Ruble , 2010 ) can work to identify the conditions that promote healthy gender and sexual development . Such studies have shown , 224 Gender Development
for example , the effects of inclusive sex education programs in school that foster awareness and acceptance of gender diversity . As Diamond ( 2020 ) concludes , studies suggest that the most intervention approaches involve creating safe and supportive spaces for all youth to give voice to diverse experiences of gender identity and expression educating peers , schools , communities , and families about the validity of transgender and identities and providing youth with access to supportive and informed care In light of the complexity of adolescent gender variation , the best course of action for all youth might involve expanding the model beyond the conventional gender binary , thereby providing a broader range of options for identity and expression , and and supporting the experiences of youth with complex , identities Whether a child as male , transgender , gender , or , environments that foster , validation , openness , and support regarding gender expression will yield lasting ( 113 ) Optional Reading Current research is now looking at those young children who identify as transgender and have socially transitioned . In 2013 , a longitudinal study following 300 socially transitioned transgender children between the ages of and 12 began ( 2018 ) Socially transitioned transgender children identify with the gender opposite to the one they were assigned at birth , and they change their appearance and pronouns to their gender identity . Findings from the study indicated that the gender development of these socially transitioned children looked similar to the gender development of children , or those whose gender is aligned to the sex they were assigned at birth . These socially transitioned transgender children exhibited similar gender preferences and gender identities as their gender matched peers . Further , these children , who were living every day according to their gender identity and were supported by their families , exhibited positive mental health . Click here to read , 2018 ) Early from the Gender development in transgender children . Child Development Perspectives 12 ( and study not only echoes an increasing consensus among pediatricians and other experts in development that children in their own felt sense of gender seems to be the best course for promoting children development ( 2020 ) and also underlines an important takeaway lesson Increasingly , it seems that it is possible to reduce the negative outcomes reported previously for gender conforming children if children are supported by their families , schools , and societies in developing into their authentic selves . Complexity , Truth , and Beauty Gender development is inherently complex , involving many dimensions of biological sex , gender expression and identity , as well as temperament , intrinsic interests , cognitive constructions , social relationships , and changing historical and societal frames . Together , these forces create an number of unique and individual pathways , which can not be captured by two boxes and can not be nurtured by drawing and enforcing arbitrary lines . Notions like gender expansion , creativity , and can become goals that we both support and strive for in our own development and in the development of all those whose has been entrusted to us . Gender Development 225
Supplemental Materials This Ted talk features a , who discusses their gender journey . a One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
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