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UNIT INFANCY Unit Infancy 67 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development Behavioral Genetics Behavioral Genetics is the scientific study of the interplay between genetic and environmental contributions to behavior . Often referred to as the debate , 1998 , 2000 , 2002 ) suggests an analytic framework for this debate that recognizes the interplay between the environment , behavior , and genetic expression . This bidirectional interplay indicates that the environment can affect the expression of genes just as genetic predispositions can impact a persons potentials . Additionally , environmental circumstances can trigger symptoms of a genetic disorder . For example , a person who has sickle cell anemia , a recessive gene linked disorder , can experience a sickle cell crisis under conditions of oxygen deprivation . Or , someone predisposed genetically to diabetes can trigger the disease through poor diet and little exercise . Research has shown how the environment and genotype interact in several ways . Correlations refer to the processes by which genetic factors contribute to variations in the environment ( 2013 ) There are three types of correlations Passive correlations occur when children passively inherit both the genes and the environments their family provides . Certain behavioral characteristics , such as being athletically inclined , may run in families . Children in these families have inherited both the genes that would enable success at these activities , and an environment that encourages them to engage in sports . Figure highlights this correlation by demonstrating how a family passes on water skiing skills through both genetics and environmental opportunities . Evocative correlations refer to how the social environment reacts to individuals based on their inherited Figure characteristics . For example , whether children have a more outgoing or shy temperament will affect how they are treated by others . Active correlations occur when individuals seek out environments that support their genetic tendencies . This is also referred to as niche picking . For example , children who are musically inclined seek out music instruction and opportunities that then facilitate their natural musical ability . Conversely , interactions involve genetic susceptibility to the environment . Adoption studies provide evidence for interactions . For example , the Early Growth and Development Study ( Leve , 2010 ) followed 360 adopted children and their adopted and biological parents in a longitudinal study . Results have shown that children whose biological parents exhibited psychopathology , exhibited fewer behavior problems when their adoptive parents used more structured ( unstructured ) parenting . Additionally , higher levels of psychopathology in adoptive parents increased the risk that children would develop behavior problems , but only when the biological parents psychopathology was also high . Consequently , these results show that environmental effects on behavior differ based on the individuals genotype , especially the effects of stressful environments on genetically children . Lastly , the study of examines in DNA that affect gene expression and are passed on when the cells divide . Environmental factors , such as nutrition , stress , and are thought to change gene expression 68 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
by switching genes on and off . These gene changes can then be inherited by daughter cells . This would explain why monozygotic or identical twins may increasingly differ in gene expression with age . For example , et al . 2005 ) found that when examining differences in DNA , a group of monozygotic twins were indistinguishable during the early years . However , when the twins were older there were discrepancies in their gene expression , most likely due to different experiences . These differences included a range of personal characteristics , including to disease . Box The Human Genome Project In 1990 the Human Genome Project ( an international endeavor , began the task of sequencing the billion base pairs that make up the human genome . In April of 2003 , more than two years ahead of schedule , scientists gave us the genetic blueprint for building a human . Since then , using this information from the , researchers have discovered the genes involved in over 1800 diseases . In 2005 the amassed a large data base called that catalogs genetic variations in 11 global populations . Data on genetic variation can improve our understanding of differential risk for disease and reactions to medical treatments , such as drugs . researchers have already developed tests to determine whether a patient will respond favorably to certain drugs used in the treatment of breast cancer , lung cancer , or HIV by using information from ( 2015 ) Future directions for the include identifying the genetic markers for all 50 major forms of cancer ( The Cancer Genome Atlas ) continuing to create more effective drugs for the treatment of disease , and examining the legal , social and ethical implications of genetic knowledge ( 2015 ) From the outset , the established ethical issues one of their main concerns . Part of the budget supports research and holds workshops that address these concerns . Who owns this information , and how the availability of genetic information may healthcare and its impact on individuals , their families , and the greater community are just some of the many questions being addressed ( 2015 ) Learning Objectives Prenatal Development Describe the changes that occur in the three periods of prenatal development Describe what occurs during prenatal brain development and describe the factors that their effects List and describe the effects of several common Explain maternal and paternal factors that affect the developing fetus Explain the types of prenatal assessment Describe both the minor and major complications of pregnancy Describe two common procedures to assess the condition of the newborn Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 69
Describe problems newborns experience before , during , and after birth Prenatal Development Now we turn our attention to prenatal development which is divided into three periods ( the germinal period , the embryonic period , and ( the fetal period . The following is an overview of some of the changes that take place during each period . The Germinal Period The germinal period ( about 14 days in length ) lasts from conception to implantation of the fertilized egg in the lining of the uterus ( see Figure ) At ejaculation millions of sperm are released into the vagina , but only a few reach the egg and typically only one fertilizes the egg . Once a single sperm has entered the wall of the egg , the wall becomes hard and prevents other sperm from entering . After the sperm has entered the egg , the tail of the sperm breaks off and the head of the sperm , containing the genetic information from the father , unites with the nucleus of the egg . The egg is typically fertilized in the top section of the fallopian tube and continues its journey to the Figure . Sperm and ovum at conception uterus . As a result , a new cell is formed . This cell , containing the combined genetic information from both parents , is referred to as a zygote . During this time , the organism begins cell division through mitosis . After five days of mitosis there is a group of 100 cells , which is now called a blastocyst . The blastocyst consists of both an inner and outer group of cells . The inner group of cells , or embryonic disk will become the embryo , while the outer group of cells , or trophoblast , becomes the support system which nourishes the developing organism . This stage ends when the blastocyst fully implants into the uterine wall ( US . National Library of Medicine , Approximately of do not implant in the uterine wall ( et , 2019 ) Mitosis is a fragile process and fewer than half of all survive beyond the two weeks ( Hall , 2004 ) Some of the reasons for this include the egg and sperm do not join properly , meaning that their genetic material does not combine there is too little or damaged genetic material the zygote does not replicate or the blastocyst does not implant into the uterine wall . The failure rate is higher for in vitro conceptions . Figure illustrates the journey of the ova from its release to its fertilization , cell duplication , and implantation into the uterine lining . 70 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
stage uncompacted stage morula 34 , Egg compacted ( morula Early blastocyst blastocyst ( hatching ) Oocyte Implantation of the Figure . Germinal Period The Embryonic Period Starting the third week the blastocyst has implanted in the uterine wall . Upon implantation this organism is called an embryo . Now blood vessels grow , forming the placenta . The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord . During this period , cells continue to differentiate . Growth during prenatal development occurs in two major directions from head to tail called cephalocaudal development and from the outward referred to as development . This means that those structures nearest the head develop before those nearest the feet and those structures nearest the torso develop before those away from the center of the body ( such as hands and ) The head develops in the fourth week and the precursor to the heart begins to pulse . In the early stages of the embryonic period , gills and a tail are apparent . Figure . The embryo However , by the end of this stage they disappear and the organism takes on a more human appearance . Some organisms Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 71
fail during the embryonic period , usually due to gross chromosomal abnormalities . As in the case of the germinal period , often the gestational parent does not yet know that they are pregnant . It is during this stage that the major structures of the body are taking form making the embryonic period the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to harmful substances . Potential mothers are not often aware of the risks they introduce to the developing embryo during this time . The embryo is approximately inch in length and weighs about grams at the end of eight weeks ( et , 2019 ) The embryo can move and respond to touch at this time . The Fetal Period From the ninth week until birth , the organism is referred to as a fetus . During this stage , the major structures are continuing to develop . By the third month , the fetus has all its body parts including external genitalia . In the following weeks , the fetus will develop hair , nails , teeth and the excretory and digestive systems will continue to develop . The fetus is about inches long and weighs about 28 grams . During the months , the eyes become more sensitive to light and hearing develops . The respiratory system continues to develop , and such as sucking , swallowing and hiccupping , develop during the month . Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are present at this time as well . The first chance of survival outside the womb , known as the age of viability is reached at about 24 weeks ( Morgan , 2008 ) The majority of the neurons in the brain have developed by 24 weeks , although they are still rudimentary , and the glial or nurse cells that support neurons continue to grow . At 24 weeks the fetus can feel pain ( Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists , 1997 ) Between the months , the fetus is primarily preparing for birth . It is exercising its muscles and its lungs begin to expand and contract . The fetus gains about pounds and inches during this last trimester of pregnancy , and during the month a layer of fat develops under the skin . This layer of fat serves as insulation and helps the baby regulate body temperature after birth . At around 36 weeks the fetus is almost ready for birth . It weighs about pounds and is about inches long . By week 37 all of the fetus organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the mothers uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth . The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks . By then the fetus has very little room to move around and birth becomes imminent . The progression through the stages is shown in Figure . 72 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
weeks Fetal stage begins 20 weeks Hearing begins 32 weeks Bones fully develop 12 weeks Sex organs differentiate 24 weeks Lungs begin to develop 36 weeks Muscles fully develop Figure . Prenatal development age milestones Prenatal Brain Development 16 weeks Fingers and toes develop 28 weeks Brain grows rapidly 40 weeks development Prenatal brain development begins in the third gestational week with the differentiation of stem cells , which are capable of producing all the different cells that make up the brain ( Stiles , 2010 ) The location of these stem cells in the embryo is referred to as the neural plate . By the end of the third week , two ridges appear along the neural plate forming the neural groove and then the neural tube . The open region in the center of the neural tube forms the Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 73
ventricles and spinal canal . By the end of the embryonic period , or week eight , the neural tube has further differentiated into the forebrain , midbrain , and hindbrain . Brain development during the fetal period involves neuron production , migration , and differentiation . From the early fetal period until , most of the 85 billion neurons have been generated and many have already migrated to their brain positions . or the formation of neurons , is largely completed after months of gestation . One exception is in the hippocampus , which continues to develop neurons throughout life . Neurons that form the neocortex , or the layer of cells that lie on the surface of the brain , migrate to their location in an orderly way . Neural migration is mostly completed in the cerebral cortex by 24 weeks ( 2018 ) Once in position , neurons begin to produce dendrites and axons that begin to form the neural networks responsible for information processing . Regions of the brain that contain the cell bodies are referred to as the gray matter because they look gray in appearance . The axons that form the neural pathways make up the white matter because they are covered in myelin , a fatty substance that is white in appearance . Myelin aids in both the insulation and of neural transmission . Although cell differentiation is complete at birth , the growth of dendrites , axons , and synapses continue for years . Good prenatal care is essential for healthy development . The developing child is most at risk for severe problems during the three months of development . Unfortunately , this is a time when many gestational parents are unaware that they are pregnant . Today , we know many of the factors that can jeopardize the health of the developing child . The study of factors that contribute to birth defects is called teratology . are environmental factors that can contribute to birth defects , and include some parental diseases , pollutants , drugs and alcohol . Factors prenatal risks . There are several considerations in determining the kind and amount of damage that can result from exposure to a particular ( Berger , 2005 ) These include The timing of the exposure . Structures in the body are vulnerable to the most severe damage when they are forming . If a substance is introduced during a particular structure critical period ( time of development ) the damage to that structure may be greater . For example , the ears and arms reach their critical periods at about weeks after conception . If a mother exposes the embryo to certain substances during this period , its ears and arms may be malformed . The amount of exposure . Some substances are not harmful unless the amounts reach a certain level . The critical level depends in part on the size and metabolism of the mother . The number of . Fetuses exposed to multiple typically have more problems than those exposed to only one . Genetics . Genetic also plays a role in the impact a particular has on a child . This is suggested by research showing that fraternal twins exposed to the same prenatal environment , do not always experience the same teratogenic effects . The genetic of the mother can also have an effect some gestational parents may be more resistant to teratogenic effects than others . Being male or female . Males are more likely to experience damage due to than are females . It is believed that the chromosome , which contains fewer genes than the , may make males more vulnerable . Figure illustrates the timing of exposure and the types of structural defects that can occur during the prenatal period . 74 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
dividing zygote , implantation and gastrulation eye not susceptible to death Figure 36 . Critical periods of prenatal development Alcohol , One of the most common is alcohol , and because half of all pregnancies in the United States are unplanned , it is recommended that people of age take great caution against drinking alcohol when not using birth control or when pregnant ( 2005 ) Alcohol use during pregnancy is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities in children in the United States ( West , 2001 ) Alcohol consumption at any point during pregnancy , but particularly during the second month of prenatal development , may lead to and behavioral that can last a lifetime . In extreme cases , alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to fetal death , but also can result in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders ( which is an umbrella term for the range of effects that can occur due to alcohol consumption during pregnancy ( March of Dimes , The most severe form of is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome ( FAS ) Children with FAS share certain physical features such as noses , small eye holes , and small heads ( see Figure ) Cognitively , these children have poor judgment , poor impulse control , higher rates of , learning issues , and lower IQ scores . These developmental problems and delays persist into adulthood ( 1996 ) and contribute to criminal behavior , psychiatric problems , and unemployment ( Based on animal studies , it has been hypothesized that a gestational parent alcohol consumption during pregnancy may predispose their child to like alcohol ( Spear , 2007 ) Binge drinking , or or more drinks in to hours , during pregnancy increases the chance of having a baby with ( March of Dimes , Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 75
Figure Tobacco . Another widely used is tobacco in fact , in 2016 , more than of pregnant women smoked in 2016 ( 2019 ) According to Tong et al . 2013 ) in conjunction with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , data from 27 sites in 2010 representing 52 of live births , showed that among women with recent live births About 23 reported smoking in the months prior to pregnancy . Almost 11 reported smoking during pregnancy . More than half ( reported that they quit smoking by the last months of pregnancy . Almost 16 reported smoking after delivery . When comparing the ages of women who smoked Women 20 , smoked during pregnancy Women smoked during pregnancy Women , smoked during pregnancy Women 235 , smoked during pregnancy The among racial and ethnic groups indicated that smoking during pregnancy was highest among American Natives ( and lowest among Asians Islanders ( When a pregnant person smokes , the fetus is exposed to dangerous chemicals including nicotine , carbon monoxide , and tar , which lessen the amount of oxygen available to the fetus . Oxygen is important for overall growth and development . Tobacco use during pregnancy has been associated with pregnancy ( fertilized egg implants itself outside of the uterus ) placenta previa ( placenta lies low in the and covers all or part of the cervix ) placenta abruption ( placenta separates prematurely from the uterine wall ) preterm delivery , low birth weight , stillbirth , fetal growth restriction , sudden infant death syndrome ( birth defects , learning disabilities , and early puberty in girls ( Center for Disease Control , 76 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
When gestational parents are exposed to secondhand smoke during pregnancy , this also increases the risk of weight infants . In addition , exposure to smoke , or toxins from tobacco smoke that linger on clothing , furniture , and in locations where smoking has occurred , can have a negative impact on infants lung development . and ( 2011 ) found that prenatal exposure to smoke played a greater role in altered lung functioning than postnatal exposure . Drugs About 70 of pregnant people take at least one prescription drug ( March of Dimes , A person should not be taking any prescription medication during pregnancy unless it was prescribed by a health care provider who knows that person is pregnant . Some prescription drugs can cause birth defects , problems in overall health , and development of the fetus . drugs are also a concern during the prenatal period because they may cause certain health problems . For example , the pain reliever ibuprofen can cause serious blood problems to the fetus during the last three months . Illicit Drugs Common illicit drugs include marijuana , cocaine , ecstasy and other club drugs , heroin , and prescription drugs that are abused . It is to fully determine the effects of particular illicit drugs on a developing fetus because most mothers who use , use more than one substance and have other unhealthy behaviors . These include smoking , drinking alcohol , not eating healthy meals , and being more likely to get a sexually transmitted disease . However , several problems seem clear . The use of cocaine is connected with low birth weight , and spontaneous abortion . Heavy marijuana use is associated with problems in brain development ( March of Dimes , If a baby gestational parent used an addictive drug during pregnancy that baby can get addicted to the drag before birth and go through drug withdrawal after birth , also known as Neonatal abstinence syndrome ( March of Dimes , Other complications of illicit drug use include premature birth , smaller than normal head size , birth defects , heart defects , and infections . Additionally , babies born to gestational parents who use drugs may have problems later in life , including death from sudden infant death syndrome , slower than normal growth , and learning and behavior . Children of substance abusing parents are also considered at high risk for a range of biological , developmental , academic , problems , including developing substance abuse problems of their own ( Conners , et , 2003 ) Box Should People Who Use Drugs During Pregnancy Be Arrested and Jailed ?
People who use drugs or alcohol during pregnancy can cause serious lifelong harm to their children . Some people have advocated mandatory screenings for people who become pregnant and have a history of drug abuse , and if the people continue using , to arrest , prosecute , and incarcerate them ( 1998 ) This policy was tried in Charleston , South Carolina 20 years ago . The policy was called the Policy on Management of Substance Abuse During Pregnancy and had disastrous results . The Policy applied to patients attending the obstetrics clinic at , which primarily serves patients who are indigent or on Medicaid . It did not apply to private obstetrical patients . The policy required patient education about the harmful effects of substance abuse during pregnancy . A statement also warned patients that protection of unborn and newborn children from the harms of illegal drug abuse could involve the Charleston police , the Solicitor of the Ninth Judicial Court , and the Protective Services Division of the Department of Social Services ( Marshall , 1995 , Rather than helping newborns , this policy seemed to deter gestational parents from seeking prenatal care and to deter them from seeking other social services . And because this policy was applied solely to income people , it also resulted in lawsuits . The program was canceled after years , during which time 42 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 77
gestational parents were arrested . A federal agency later determined that the program involved human experimentation without the approval and oversight of an institutional review board ( In July 2014 , Tennessee enacted a law that allows people who illegally use a narcotic drug while pregnant to be prosecuted for assault if her infant is harmed or addicted to the drug ( National Public Radio , 2015 ) According to the National Public Radio report , a baby is born dependent on a drug every 30 minutes in Tennessee , which is a rate three times higher than the national average . However , since the law took effect the number of babies born having drug withdrawal symptoms has not diminished . Critics contend that the criminal justice system should not be involved in what is considered a healthcare problem . What do you think ?
Do you consider the issue of gestational parents using illicit drugs more of a legal or a medical concern ?
Pollutants . There are more than chemicals used in the United States with little information on their effects on unborn children ( March of Dimes , Toxoplasmosis . The tiny parasite , causes an infection culled toxoplasmosis . According to the March of Dimes ( infects more than 60 million people in the United States . A healthy immune system can keep the parasite at bay resulting in no symptoms , so most people do not know they are infected . As a routine prenatal screening frequently does not test for the presence of this parasite , pregnant people may want to talk to their provider about being tested . Toxoplasmosis can cause premature birth , stillbirth , and can result in birth defects to the eyes and brain . While most babies born with this infection show no symptoms , ten percent may experience eye infections , enlarged liver and Lead poisoning . An environmental pollutant of concern is lead , which has been linked to fertility problems , high blood pressure , low birth weight , prematurity , miscarriage , and delayed neurological development . and ( 2017 ) found that babies born in Flint Michigan , an area with high lead levels in the drinking water , were premature , weighed less than average , and gained less weight than normal . Pesticides . Chemicals in certain pesticides are also potentially damaging and may lead to miscarriage , low birth weight , premature birth , birth defects , and learning problems , March of Dimes , 2014 ) Prenatal exposure to A ( a chemical commonly used in plastics and food and beverage containers , may disrupt the action of certain genes contributing to particular birth defects ( March of Dimes , Radiation . If a gestational parent is exposed to radiation , it can get into the bloodstream and pass through the umbilical cord to the fetus . Radiation can also build up in body areas close to the uterus , such as the bladder . Exposure to radiation can cause result in miscarriage , affect brain development , slow the baby growth , or cause birth defects or cancer . Mercury . a heavy metal , can cause brain damage and affect the baby hearing and vision . This is why people are cautioned about the amount and type of they consume during pregnancy . I Figure spleen , jaundice , and pneumonia . To avoid being infected , 78 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
gestational parents should avoid eating undercooked or raw meat and unwashed fruits and vegetables , touching cooking utensils that touched raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables , and touching cat feces , soil , or sand . If people think they may have been infected during pregnancy , they should have their newborn tested . Sexually transmitted diseases . Gonorrhea , syphilis , and chlamydia are sexually transmitted infections that can be passed to the fetus by an infected gestational parent . Gestational parents should be tested as early as possible to minimize the risk of spreading these infections to their unborn children . Additionally , the earlier the treatment begins , the better the health outcomes for parent and baby ( Sexually transmitted diseases ( can cause an ectopic pregnancy , miscarriage , premature rupture of the amniotic sac , premature birth , still births . and birth defects ( March of Dimes , 2013 ) Although some can cross the placenta and infect the developing fetus , most babies become infected with while passing through the birth canal during delivery . Human Virus ( HIV ) One of the most potentially devastating is HIV HIV and Acquired Immune Syndrome ( AIDS ) are leading causes of illness and death in the United States ( Health Resources and Services Administration , 2015 ) One of the main ways children under age 13 become infected with HIV is via transmission of the virus prenatally , during labor , or by breastfeeding ( There are measures that can be taken to lower the chance the child will contract the disease . HIV positive gestational parents who take antiviral medications during their pregnancy greatly reduce the chance of passing the virus to the fetus . The risk of transmission is less than in contrast , if the gestational parent does not take drugs , the risk is elevated to 25 ( However , the risks of prenatal exposure to the medication are not known . It is recommended that people with HIV deliver the child by , and that after birth they avoid breast feeding . German measles ( or rubella ) Rubella , also called German measles , is an infection that causes mild symptoms and a rash on the skin . Rubella in the gestational parent has been associated with a number of birth defects . If the gestational parent contracts the disease during the three months of pregnancy , damage can occur in the eyes , ears , heart or brain of the unborn child . if the pregnant person has German measles before the week of prenatal development , deafness is almost certain and brain damage can also result . People in the United States are much less likely to be afflicted with rubella , because most receive childhood vaccinations which protect them from the disease . Maternal Factors Gestational parent over 35 . Most people over 35 who become pregnant are in good health and have healthy pregnancies . However , according to the March of Dimes ( people over age 35 have an increased risk of Fertility problems High blood pressure Diabetes Miscarriages Placenta Previa Cesarean section Premature birth Stillbirth A baby with a genetic disorder or other birth defects Because a gestational parent is born with all their eggs , environmental can affect the quality of the eggs as they get older . Also , their reproductive system ages which can adversely affect the pregnancy . Some people over 35 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 79
choose special prenatal screening tests , such as a maternal blood screening , to determine if there are any health risks for the baby . Although there are medical concerns associated with having a child later in life , there are also many positive consequences to being a more mature parent . Older parents are more , less stressed , and typically married , which can provide family stability . Their children perform better on math and reading tests , and they are less prone to injuries or emotional troubles ( Albert , 2013 ) People who choose to wait are often well educated and lead healthy lives . According to Gregory ( 2007 ) older women are more stable , demonstrate a stronger family focus , possess greater , and have more money . Figure . Having a child later in ones career equals overall higher wages . In fact , for every year a gestational parent delays becoming a parent , they make more in lifetime earnings . Lastly , gestational parents who delay having children actually live longer . Sun et al . 2015 ) found that women who had their last child after the age of 33 doubled their chances of living to age 95 or older than women who had their last child before their birthday . A gestational parent natural ability to have a child at a later age indicates that their reproductive system is aging slowly , and consequently so is the rest of their body . Teenage pregnancy . A teenage gestational parent is at a greater risk for complications during pregnancy , including anemia and high blood pressure . These risks are even greater for those under age 15 . Infants born to teenage gestational parents have a higher risk of being born prematurely and having low or other serious health problems . Premature and low babies may have organs that are not fully developed which can result in breathing problems , bleeding in the brain , vision loss , and serious intestinal problems . Very low babies ( less than pounds ) are more than 100 times as likely to die , and moderately low babies ( between and pounds ) are more than times as likely to die in their year , than normal weight babies ( March of Dimes , Again , the risk is highest for babies of gestational parents under age 15 . A primary reason for these health issues is that teenagers are the least likely of all age groups to get early and regular prenatal care . Additionally , they may engage in risky behaviors during pregnancy , including eating unhealthy food , smoking , drinking alcohol , and taking drugs . Additional concerns for teenagers are repeat births . About 25 of teen gestational parents under age 18 have a second baby within years after the baby birth . Gestational diabetes . Seven percent of pregnant people develop gestational diabetes ( March of Dimes , Diabetes is a condition where the body has too much glucose in the bloodstream . Most pregnant people have their glucose level tested at 24 to 28 weeks of pregnancy . Gestational diabetes usually goes away after the gestational parent gives birth , but it might indicate a risk for developing diabetes later in life . If untreated , gestational diabetes can cause premature birth , stillbirth , infant breathing problems at birth , jaundice , or low blood sugar . Babies born to mothers with gestational diabetes can also be considerably heavier ( more than pounds ) making the labor and birth process more . For expectant mothers , untreated gestational diabetes can cause ( high blood pressure and signs that the liver and kidneys may not be working properly ) discussed later in the chapter . Risk factors for gestational diabetes include age ( being over age 25 ) being overweight or gaining too much weight during pregnancy , a family history of diabetes , having had gestational diabetes with a prior pregnancy , and race and ethnicity ( mothers who are , Native American , Hispanic , Asian , or Islander have a higher risk ) Eating healthy food and maintaining a healthy weight during pregnancy can reduce the chance of gestational diabetes . People who already have diabetes and become pregnant need to attend all their prenatal care visits , and follow the same advice as those for people with gestational diabetes as the risk of , premature birth , birth defects , and stillbirth are the same . 80 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
High blood pressure ( Hypertension ) Hypertension is a condition in which the pressure against the wall of the arteries becomes too high . There are two types of high blood pressure during pregnancy , gestational and chronic . Gestational hypertension only occurs during pregnancy and goes away after birth . Chronic high blood pressure refers to people who already had hypertension before the pregnancy or to those who developed it during pregnancy and it continued after birth . According to the March of Dimes ( about in every 100 pregnant people have high blood pressure . High blood pressure during pregnancy can cause premature birth and low birth weight ( under and a half pounds ) placental abruption , and mothers can develop . disease . is a protein found in the blood . Most people are positive , meaning they have this protein . Some people are negative , meaning this protein is absent . Gestational parents who are negative are at risk of having a baby with a form of anemia called disease ( March of Dimes , 2009 ) A father who is and gestational parent who is negative can conceive a baby who is . Some of the fetus blood cells may get into the mothers bloodstream and her immune system is unable to recognize the factor . The immune system starts to produce antibodies to off what it thinks is a foreign invader . Once the pregnant person body produces immunity , the antibodies can cross the placenta and start to destroy the red blood cells of the developing fetus . As this process takes time , often the positive baby is not harmed , but because the pregnant person body continues to produce antibodies to the factor across their lifetime , subsequent pregnancies can pose greater risk for an positive baby . In newborns , disease can lead to jaundice , anemia , heart failure , brain damage and death . Weight gain during pregnancy . According to March of Dimes ( during pregnancy most people need only an additional 300 calories per day to aid in the growth of the fetus . Gaining too little or too much weight during pregnancy can be harmful . People who gain too little may have a baby who is weight , while those who gain too much are likely to have a premature or large baby . There is also a greater risk for the gestational parent developing and diabetes , which can cause further problems during the pregnancy . Table shows the healthy weight gain during pregnancy . Putting on the weight slowly is best . Gestational parents who are concerned about their weight gain should talk to their health care provider . Table Weight gain during pregnancy If you were a healthy weight If you were underweight If you were overweight before If you were obese before before pregnancy before pregnancy pregnancy pregnancy gain gain . in the in the gam . trimester and per week trimester and a little more ?
331214 in the Second and third than Per Week and the second and ' i thereafter I I Mothers of twins need to gain more in each category Stress . It is common to feel stressed during pregnancy , but high levels of stress can cause complications including having a premature or baby . Babies born early or too small are at an increased risk for health problems . hormones may cause these complications by affecting a gestational parent immune systems resulting in an infection and premature birth . Additionally , some people deal with stress by smoking , drinking alcohol , or taking drugs , which can lead to problems in the pregnancy . High levels of stress in pregnancy have also been correlated with problems in the baby brain development and immune system functioning , as well as childhood problems such as trouble paying attention and anxiety ( March of Dimes , Depression . Depression is a medical condition in which feelings of sadness , worthlessness , guilt , and fatigue interfere with one daily functioning . Depression can occur before , during , or after pregnancy , and in pregnant Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 81
people are treated for depression sometime between the year before pregnancy and the year after pregnancy ( March of Dimes , Women who have experienced depression previously are more likely to have depression while pregnant . Consequences of depression include the baby being born prematurely , having a low , being more irritable , less active , less attentive , and having fewer facial expressions . About 13 of pregnant people take an antidepressant during pregnancy . It is important that pregnant people taking antidepressants discuss the medication with a health care provider as some medications can cause harm to the developing organism . In fact , birth defects are about to times more likely in people who are prescribed certain Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors ( for their depression . Paternal impact . The age of fathers at the time of conception is also an important factor in health risks for children . According to ( 2015 ) offspring of men over 40 face an increased risk of miscarriage , autism , birth defects , achondroplasia ( bone growth disorder ) and schizophrenia . These increased health risks are thought to be due to chromosomal aberrations and mutations that accumulate during the maturation of sperm cells in older men ( Bray , 81 Smith , 2006 ) However , like older women , the overall risks are small . In addition , men are more likely than women to work in occupations where hazardous chemicals , many of which have Figure teratogenic effects or may cause genetic mutations , are used ( 2008 ) These may include , lead , and pesticides that can cause abnormal sperm and lead to miscarriages or diseases . Men are also more likely to be a source of secondhand smoke for their developing offspring . As noted earlier , smoking by either the mother or around the mother can impede prenatal development . Assessing the Neonate The assessment is conducted at one minute and , who , minutes after birth . This is a very quick way to assess the newborns overall condition . Five measures are assessed Heart rate , respiration , muscle tone ( assessed by touching the baby palm ) response ( the is tested ) and color . A score of to is given on each feature examined . An of or less is cause for concern . The second should indicate improvement with a higher score ( see Figure ) Another way to assess the condition of the newborn is the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale ( The baby motor development , muscle tone , and stress response are Figure assessed . This tool has been used around the world to further assess newborn , especially those with low scores , and to make comparisons of infants in different cultures ( Nugent , 1995 ) Problems of the Newborn 82 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
Anoxia . Anoxia is a temporary lack of oxygen to the brain . during delivery may lead to anoxia which can result in brain damage or in severe cases , death . Babies who suffer both low birth weight and anoxia are more likely to suffer learning disabilities later in life as well . Low birth weight . We have been discussing a number of associated with low birth weight such as alcohol , tobacco , and so on . A child is considered low birth weight if he or she weighs less than pounds ounces ( 2500 grams ) About percent of babies born in the United States are of low birth weight ( Center for Disease Control , A low birth weight baby has maintaining adequate body temperature Figure . Newborn in neonatal unit because it lacks the fat that would otherwise provide insulation . Such babies are also at more risk for infection , and 67 percent of these babies are also preterm which can increase their risk for respiratory infection . Very low birth weight babies ( pounds or less ) have an increased risk of developing cerebral palsy . Additionally , and ( 2019 ) analyzed fetal growth and found that reduced birth weight was correlated with a small , but increase in several psychiatric disorders in adulthood . These include disorder , autism , depression , and disorder . et al . theorized that reduced fetal growth compromises brain development during a critical period , which in turn slightly increases the risk not only for disorders but also for virtually all mental health conditions ( 540 ) An supply of oxygen and nutrients for the developing fetus are proposed as factors that increased the risk for disorders . Preterm . A newborn might also have a low birth weight if it is born at less than 37 weeks gestation , which it as a preterm baby ( Early birth can be triggered by anything that disrupts the mothers system . For instance , vaginal infections can lead to premature birth because such infection causes the mother to release chemicals which , in turn , can trigger contractions . Smoking and the use of other can lead to preterm birth . The earlier a woman quits smoking , the lower the chance that the baby will be born preterm ( 2019 ) A consequence of preterm birth includes respiratory distress syndrome , which is characterized by weak and irregular breathing ( United States National Library of Medicine , name given to her by the hospital ) a baby girl born in San Diego , California is now considered the world smallest baby ever to survive ( Chiu , 2019 ) She was born in December 2018 at 23 weeks and days weighing only ounces ( same size as an apple ) After months in the hospital , went home in May 2019 weighing pounds . below expectation based on their gestational age are referred to infants . Infants that have birth weights that are Figure 313 , as . These infants may be full term or preterm , but still weigh less than 90 of all babies of the same gestational age . This is a very serious situation for newborns as their growth was adversely affected . et al . 2003 ) found that infants died at rates more than four times higher than other infants . Remember that many causes of low birth weight and preterm births are preventable with proper prenatal care . Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 83
Supplemental Materials This documentary follows four babies from different parts of the globe as they navigate their year of life . Alain Billot Christine Bertrand McKay Craig Swank Motion Pictures distributor . 2014 ) Babies . Montreal Alliance . The following video explains how In Vitro Fertilization ( works as a solution for couples who can not conceive naturally ( some older couples and some queer couples ) One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
This Department of Health and Human Services website shows infant mortality rate statistics by ethnicity . This Ted Talk features a doula and journalist , Miriam Perez , who explores the relationship between race , class . and illness . Further , Perez discusses a radically compassionate prenatal care program that can buffer pregnant women from the stress that people of color face every day . One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
This book provides a troubling study of the role that medical racism plays in the lives of black women who have given birth to premature and low birth weight infants . Davis ( 2019 ) Reproductive Injustice ( Vol . New York NYU Press . This article details the experience of , a professor who dealt with pregnancy and birthing complications due to systemic racism . References Albert , 2013 ) Many more women delay childbirth into due to career constraints . Milwaukee Journal Sentinel . Retrieved from 84 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
American Pregnancy Association . 2015 ) Epidural anesthesia . Retrieved from American Psychiatric Association . 2013 ) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , edition ( Washington , Author . American Society of Reproductive Medicine . 2015 ) State infertility insurance laws . Retrieved from Berger , 2005 ) The developing person through the life span ( New York Worth . Berk , 2004 ) Development through the life span ( Boston and Bacon . 66 , Johnson , Johnson , Poe , Wise , Young , A . 2019 ) Anatomy and physiology ( Houston , Rice University . A . 1999 ) The epidemiology of multiple births . Human Reproduction Update , Bray , Smith , 2006 ) Advanced paternal age How old is too old ?
Journal of Epidemiology Community Health , 60 ( 10 ) Doi , Nugent , 1995 ) Neonatal behavioral assessment scale . London Mac Keith Press . 2017 ) The lonely terror of postpartum anxiety . Retrieved from , Wilcox , Peterson , Jones , 2003 ) Elevated sperm chromosome aneuploidy and in patients with unexplained recurrent pregnancy loss . Obstetrics and Gynecology , 101 ( Carroll , 2007 ) Sexuality now Embracing diversity ( Belmont , CA . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2005 ) Surgeon general advisory on alcohol use during pregnancy . Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2014 ) Pelvic disease . Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . and gestation . Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Genetic counseling . Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 20150 ) Preterm birth . Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Smoking , pregnancy , and babies . Retrieved from campaign tips diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders . Retrieved from Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 85
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . prevention . Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . HIV transmission . Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . during pregnancy . Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2019 ) deaths . Retrieved from Chiu , A . 2019 , May 30 ) shes a miracle Born weighing about as much as a large apple , is the worlds smallest surviving baby . The Washington Post . Retrieved from ?
67 Conners , Bradley , Liu , Roberts , 2003 ) Children of mothers with serious substance abuse problems An accumulation of risks . The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse , 29 ( 2008 ) Evidence for a role of paternal exposure in developmental toxicity . Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology , 102 , 1996 ) What to expect when you re expecting . New York Workman Publishing . 1998 ) Concerns mount over punitive approaches to substance abuse among pregnant women . The report on public policy , Paz , 2005 ) Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins . Proceedings of the National Academy of Science ( USA ) 1998 ) Normally occurring environmental and behavioral on gene activity From central dogma to probabilistic epigenesis . Psychological Review , 105 , 2000 ) Environmental and behavioral on gene activity . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 2002 ) Individual development and evolution The genesis of novel behavior . New York Oxford University Press . Gould , 1997 ) Biological science ( New York Norton . Gregory , 2007 ) Ready Why women are embracing the new later motherhood . Philadelphia , PA Basic Books . 2017 ) The effect of an increase in lead in the water system on fertility and birth outcomes The case of Flint , Michigan . Economics Faculty Working Papers Series . Retrieved from Hall , 2004 ) Meiotic drive and sex chromosome cycling . Evolution , 58 ( Health Resources and Services Administration . 2015 ) HIV screening for pregnant women . Retrieved from 86 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
, Marshall , 1995 ) The Charleston policy on cocaine use during pregnancy A cautionary tale . The Journal of Law , Medicine , and Ethics , 23 ( Leve , 2010 ) The early growth and development study Using the prospective adoption design to examine . Behavior Genetics , 40 , DOI , 2010 ) Trends and characteristics of home and other out of hospital births in the United States , United States , Center for Disease Control ) Retrieved from , West , 2001 ) Drinking patterns and birth defects . Alcohol Research Health , 25 ( March of Dimes . 2009 ) disease . Retrieved from March of Dimes . Rubella and your baby . Retrieved from 68 March of Dimes . Stress and pregnancy . Retrieved from March of Dimes . Teenage pregnancy . Retrieved from March of Dimes . Toxoplasmosis . Retrieved from March of Dimes . 2013 ) Sexually transmitted diseases . Retrieved March of Dimes . 2014 ) Pesticides and pregnancy . Retrieved from March of Dimes . Depression during pregnancy . Retrieved from March of Dimes . Gestational diabetes . Retrieved from March of Dimes . High blood pressure during pregnancy . Retrieved from March of Dimes . Neonatal abstinence syndrome . Retrieved from ( nas ) March of Dimes . Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders . Retrieved from March of Dimes . Identifying the causes of birth defects . Retrieved from research March of Dimes . Marijuana and pregnancy . Retrieved from Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 87
March of Dimes . Pregnancy after age 35 . Retrieved from March of Dimes . Prescription medicine during pregnancy . Retrieved from March of Dimes . Weight gain during pregnancy . Retrieved from Martin , Hamilton , 2015 ) Births Final data for 2013 . National Vital Statistics Reports , 64 ( Mayo Clinic . 2014 ) Labor and delivery , postpartum care . Retrieved from Mayo Clinic . 2015 ) Male infertility . Retrieved from Mayo Clinic . 2016 ) Episiotomy When its needed , when its not . Retrieved from Morgan , 2008 ) practices regarding preterm birth at the limit of viability . The Journal of and Neonatal Medicine , 21 , National Institute of Child Health and Human Development . 2013 ) Retrieved from health topics Pages 69 National Institute of Health ( 2015 ) An overview of the human genome project . Retrieved from 12011238 National Institute of Health . 2019 ) syndrome . from condition syndrome statistics National Public Radio . Producer ) 2015 , November 18 ) In Tennessee , giving birth to a baby can be a crime Audio podcast . Retrieved from ?
2015 ) How does paternal age affect a baby health ?
Mayo Clinic . Retrieved from 20057873 , 2019 ) Association of fetal growth with general and mental health conditions . JAMA Psychiatry , 76 ( 2013 ) Behavioral genetics ( edition ) NY Worth Publishers . 2018 ) neurology of the newborn ( edition ) Amsterdam , Netherlands . Lusky , 2003 ) Excess mortality and morbidity among premature infants A population based study . Journal of Pediatrics , 143 , 2011 ) smoke A new dimension to the effects of cigarette smoke in the developing lung . American Journal of Physiology Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology , 301 ( Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists . 1997 ) Fetal awareness Review of research and recommendations . 88 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
Retrieved from en , 2019 ) Association of maternal cigarette smoking and smoking cessation with preterm birth . JAMA Network Open , Stiles , 2010 ) The basics of brain development . Neuropsychology Review , 20 ( doi , 1996 ) Understanding the occurrence of secondary disabilities in clients with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome ( FAS ) and Fetal Alcohol Effects ( FAE ) Final Report to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( August . Seattle University of Washington , Fetal Alcohol Drug Unit , Tech . No . Sun , Bae , Abel , 2015 ) Extended maternal age at birth of last child and womens longevity in the Long Life Family Study . Menopause The Journal of the North American Menopause Society , 22 ( Tong , Morrow , Angelo , Farr , England , 2013 ) Trends in smoking before , during , and after pregnancy Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System , United States , 40 Sites , Surveillance Summaries , 62 ( Retrieved from United States National Library of Medicine . 2014 ) In vitro fertilization . Retrieved from United States National Library of Medicine . Fetal development . Retrieved from United States National Library of Medicine . Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome . Retrieved from article 70 World Health Organization . 2010 , September 15 ) Maternal deaths worldwide drop by a third , WHO . Retrieved from , Spear , 2007 ) The effect of gestational ethanol exposure on voluntary ethanol intake in early postnatal and adult rats . Behavioral Neuroscience , 121 ( OER Attribution Lifespan Development A Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a Video How in vitro fertilization ( works by TED is licensed How racism harms pregnant women and what can help by TED is licensed Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development 89
Media Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a Attribution NonCommercial ) license Unknown is licensed under a Public Domain license Human Fertilization is licensed under a ( Attribution ) license Human weeks estimated gestational is licensed BY license Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a ( Attribution NonCommercial ) license Laura is licensed under a ( Attribution NonCommercial ) license Photo of baby with FAS Teresa is licensed under a ( Attribution ( license Tom Thai is licensed under a BY ( Attribution ) license is licensed under a ( Creative Commons Zero license Unknown is licensed under a Public Domain license score is licensed under a ( Attribution ) license Human Infant in Incubator at the English language Wikipedia is licensed under a ( Attribution license 90 Beginnings Conception and Prenatal Development
Attachment Learning Objectives during Use theory to characterize psychosocial development during infancy . Describe ethological theory of attachment . Describe theory of attachment styles , and contrast four styles assessed using the Strange Situation Technique . Explain the factors that attachment . Explain how the effects of attachment can be carried forward by children internal working models . Developmental Task of Infancy Trust Mistrust As discussed in Chapter , Erik formulated a theory of psychosocial development that posited that development is organized around eight developmental tasks . At each age , infants , children , adolescents , and adults , negotiate target developmental tasks that are to that period of development . When the target task is negotiated successfully , it creates a foundation for future healthy development and provides a basis for the successful negotiation of future developmental tasks . When a task is not well resolved , this makes continued healthy development more . The developmental task of infancy is trust mistrust , and it is negotiated in the establishment of a secure attachment relationship with the caregiver . maintained that during the year to year and a half of life the most important goal is the development of a basic sense of trust in one caregivers ( 1982 ) Infants are dependent and must rely on others to meet their basic physical and psychological needs . A caregiver who consistently meets these needs instills a sense of trust or the belief that the world is a trustworthy place . Caregivers should not worry about overly indulging an infant need for comfort , contact , or stimulation . Caregiver responsiveness communicates to infants that their needs will be taken care of , and so is essential in supporting the development of a sense of trust . Problems establishing trust ( 1982 ) believed that basic mistrust could interfere with many aspects of psychosocial development and make it more to build love and fellowship with others . Consider the implications for establishing trust if a caregiver is unavailable or is upset and to care for a child . Or if a child is born prematurely , is unwanted , or has physical problems that make him or her less attractive to a parent . Under these circumstances , we can not assume that the parent is going to care for the child in ways that support the development of trust . As you will read later , it is possible to rework mental models of insecure early relationships , but close and caring relationships with primary caregivers make it much easier for infants to negotiate this developmental task . Attachment 91
What Babies Come With Newborns are equipped with a number of which are involuntary movements in response to stimulation ( see Table ) Some of the more common , such as the sucking and rooting , are important to feeding . The grasping and stepping are eventually replaced by more voluntary behaviors . Within the few months of life these disappear , while other , such as the , swallowing , sneezing , gagging , and withdrawal stay with us as they continue to serve important functions . offer pediatricians insight into the maturation and health of the nervous system . In preterm infants and those with neurological , some of these may be absent at birth . Once present , they may persist longer than in a neurologically healthy infant ( Glass Aly , 2012 ) that persist longer than they should can impede normal development ( Berne , 2006 ) 92 Attachment
Table Some Common Attachment 93 Description Image Sucking Suck on anything that touches the lips Rooting Turning the head when the cheek is touched Grasp Fingers automatically grip anything the touches the palm of the hand The toes will fan out and curl when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to we 94 Attachment
Description A sudden noise or loss of support to the head will cause infants to spread out Mom their arms and legs then quickly contract the limbs inward Tonic When lying on the back with the head to one side infants will extend the arm Neck and leg on that side while the limbs on the opposite side ( looks like a fencer pose ) Stepping Legs move in stepping like motion when feet touch a smooth surface adapted from Lally , 2019 Attachment 95
Forming Attachments Attachment is a strong affectionate bond that binds an infant to a specific intimate caregiver , and from which the infant derives a sense of security . The formation of attachments in infancy has been the subject of considerable research since attachments are viewed as foundations for future relationships . Additionally , attachments form the basis for and curiosity as toddlers , and are important on . Freud Psychoanalytic Theory . According to Freud ( 1938 ) infants are oral creatures who obtain pleasure from sucking and mouthing objects . Freud believed the infant will become attached to a person or object that provides this pleasure . Consequently , infants were believed to become attached to their mother because she was the one who their oral needs and provided pleasure . Freud further believed that infants will become attached to their mothers if the mother is relaxed and generous in her feeding practices , thereby allowing the child a lot of oral pleasure , 1985 , 435 ) Was Freud correct in his explanation for why infants became attached ?
Figure 314 Harlow Research . In a classic study testing whether feeding was the most important factor in attachment , Wisconsin University psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow investigated the responses of young monkeys . Infant monkeys were separated from their biological mothers , and two surrogate mothers were introduced into their cages . One , the wire mother , consisted of a round wooden head , a mesh of cold metal wires , and a bottle of milk from which the baby monkey could drink . The second mother was a form wrapped in a heated blanket . The infant monkeys went to the wire mother for food , but they overwhelmingly preferred and spent more time with the warm mother . The warm mother provided no food but did provide comfort ( Harlow , 1958 ) The infants need for physical closeness and touching is referred to as contact comfort . Contact comfort is believed to be the foundation for attachment . The ' studies that babies have social as well as physical needs . Both monkeys and human babies need a secure base that allows them to feel safe . From this base , they can gain the they need to venture out and explore their worlds . Theory . Building on the work of ( who study animal behavior under natural conditions ) John developed a theory of attachment . He attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the caregiver ( 1969 ) This bond provides a basis for normal neurophysiological , social , and emotional development . In addition , proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life . He used the concept of a secure base to a healthy attachment between parent and child ( 1982 ) A secure base is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as the child explores the surroundings . said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment The caregiver must be responsive to the physical , social , and emotional needs and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions ( 1969 ) Additionally , observed that infants would go to extraordinary lengths to prevent separation from their parents , such as crying , refusing to be comforted , and waiting for the caregiver to return . He observed that these same expressions were common to many other mammals , and consequently argued that these negative responses to separation serve an evolutionary function . Because mammalian infants can not feed or protect themselves , they are dependent upon the care and protection of adults for survival . Thus , those infants who were able to maintain proximity to an attachment were more likely to survive and reproduce . 96 Attachment
Four Stages of Attachment Please watch the video below for a description of the four developmental stages of attachment . One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?
Mary and the Strange Situation Technique Developmental psychologist Mary , a student of John , continued studying the development of attachment in infants . and her colleagues created a laboratory test that measured an infant attachment to his or her parent . The test is called The Strange Situation Technique because it is conducted in a context that is unfamiliar to the child and therefore likely to heighten the child need for his or her parent ( 1979 ) During the procedure , that lasts about 20 minutes , the parent and the infant are left alone , while the infant explores the room full of toys . Then a strange adult enters the room and talks for a minute to the parent , after which the parent leaves the room . The stranger stays with the infant for a few minutes , and then the parent again enters , and the stranger leaves the room . During the entire session , a video camera records the child behaviors , which are later coded by trained coders . The investigators were especially interested in how the child responded to the caregiver leaving and returning to the room , referred to as the On the basis of their behaviors , the children are categorized into one of four groups where each group reflects a different kind of attachment relationship with the caregiver . One style is secure and the other three styles are referred to as insecure . A child with a secure attachment style usually explores freely while the caregiver is present and may engage with the stranger . The child will typically play with the toys and bring one to the caregiver to show and describe from time to time . The child may be upset when the caregiver departs but is also happy to see the caregiver return . A child with a resistant ( sometimes called ambivalent ) attachment style is wary about the situation in general , particularly the stranger , and stays close or even clings to the caregiver rather than exploring the toys . When the caregiver leaves , the child is extremely distressed and is ambivalent when the caregiver returns . The child may rush to the caregiver , but then fails to be comforted when picked up . The child may still be angry and even resist attempts to be soothed . A child with an attachment style will avoid or ignore the mother , showing little emotion when the mother departs or returns . The child may run away from the mother when she approaches . The child will not explore very much , regardless of who is there , and the stranger will not be treated much differently from the mother . A child with a attachment style seems to have an inconsistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation . The child may cry during the separation , but avoid the mother when she returns , or the child may approach the mother but then freeze or fall to the floor . Attachment 97
Table Strange Situation Stages Event Secure Explores freely Stays close to caregiver Chaotic exploration in room but unfocused Stranger enters room and May interact Indifferent to Afraid of stranger when Afraid or uncertain talks with caregiver with stranger stranger caregiver present about stranger Caregiver leaves room and May be upset child is left alone with when caregiver stranger leaves Not upset when High distress when alone Unpredictable ( may be caregiver leaves with stranger upset or not ) Ambivalent wants contact with caregiver but is upset at them Happy to see Reunion with caregiver caregiver return Reacts to return of caregiver with distress Ignores or avoids caregiver How common are the attachment styles among children in the United States ?
It is estimated that about 65 percent of children in the United States are securely attached . Twenty percent exhibit styles and 10 to 15 percent are ambivalent . Another to 10 percent may be characterized as disorganized ( Waters , Wall , 1978 ) Some cultural differences in attachment styles have been found ( Pott , 2000 ) For example , German parents value independence and Japanese mothers are typically by their children sides . As a result , the rate of attachments is higher in Germany and attachments are higher in Japan . These differences reflect cultural variation rather than true insecurity , however ( van and , 1999 ) Overall , secure attachment is the most common type of attachment seen in every culture studied thus far ( Thompson , 2006 ) Caregiver Interactions and the Formation of Attachment Most developmental psychologists argue that a child becomes securely attached when there is consistent contact from one or more caregivers who meet the physical and emotional needs of the child in a responsive and appropriate manner . However , Figure even in cultures where mothers do not talk , cuddle , and play with their infants , secure attachments can develop ( et . 1994 ) The insecure resistant ( or ambivalent ) style occurs when the parent is insensitive and responds inconsistently to the child needs . Consequently , the infant is never sure that the world is a trustworthy place or that he or she can rely on others without some anxiety . A caregiver who is unavailable , perhaps because of marital tension , substance abuse , or preoccupation with work , may send a message to the infant he or she can not rely on having needs met . An infant who receives only sporadic attention when experiencing discomfort may not learn how to calm down . The child may cry if separated from the caregiver and also cry upon their return . They seek constant reassurance that never seems to satisfy their doubt . Keep in mind that clingy behavior can also just be part of a childs natural disposition or temperament and does not necessarily some kind of parental neglect . Additionally , a caregiver that attends to a child frustration can help teach them to be calm and to relax . The insecure style is marked by insecurity , but this style is also characterized by a tendency to avoid contact 98 Attachment
with the caregiver and with others . This child may have learned that needs typically go unmet and learns that the caregiver does not provide care and can not be relied upon for comfort , even sporadically . An insecure child learns to be more independent and disengaged . The insecure style represents the most insecure style of attachment and occurs when the child is given mixed , confused , and inappropriate responses from the caregiver . For example , a mother who suffers from schizophrenia may laugh when a child is hurting or cry when a child exhibits joy . The child does not learn how to interpret emotions or to connect with the unpredictable caregiver . This type of attachment is also often seen in children who have been abused . Research has shown that abuse disrupts a childs ability to regulate their emotions ( Main Solomon , 1990 ) Support for caregivers . Sometimes parents need help in responding consistently to their infants needs . A positive and strong support group can help a parent and child build a strong foundation by offering assistance and positive attitudes toward the newborn and parent . In a direct test of this idea , Dutch researcher van den Boom ( 1994 ) randomly assigned some babies mothers to a training session in which they learned to better respond to their children needs . The research found that these mothers babies were more likely to show a secure attachment style in comparison to the mothers in a control group that did not receive training . Fig 315 Social Deprivation . Severe deprivation of parental attachment can lead to serious problems . Infants who , perhaps because of being in orphanages with inadequate care , have not had the opportunity to attach in infancy may still form initial secure attachments several years later . However , they may have more emotional problems of depression , anger , or be overly friendly as they interact with others ( et . 2003 ) According to studies of children who have not been given warm , nurturing care , they may show developmental delays , failure to thrive , and attachment disorders ( 1982 ) failure to thrive is the diagnosis for an infant who does not grow , develop , or gain weight on schedule and there is no known medical explanation for this failure . Poverty , neglect , inconsistent parenting , and severe family dysfunction are correlated with failure to thrive . In addition , postpartum depression can cause even a intentioned mother to neglect her infant . Reactive Attachment Disorder Children who experience social neglect or deprivation , repeatedly change primary caregivers that limit opportunities to form stable attachments or are reared in unusual settings ( such as institutions ) that limit opportunities to form stable attachments can certainly have forming attachments . According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , edition ( American Psychiatric Association , 2013 ) those children experiencing neglectful situations and also displaying markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate attachment behavior , such as being inhibited and withdrawn , minimal social and emotional responsiveness to others , and limited positive affect , may be diagnosed with reactive attachment disorder . This disorder often occurs with developmental delays , especially in cognitive and language areas . Fortunately , the majority of severely neglected children do not develop reactive attachment disorder , which occurs in less than 10 of such children . The quality of the environment after serious neglect affects the development of this disorder . Attachment 99
Internal Working Models of Attachment As research accumulated showing the effects of the quality of attachment between young children and their caregivers , researchers became very interested in the question of why as in Why does attachment at an early age predict later aspects of social , emotional , and cognitive development ?
To answer this question , they began exploring possible mediating mechanisms , looking for the pathways through which attachment exerts its effects . Research has uncovered several mechanisms , including neurophysiological pathways ( children in securely attached have lower levels of stress reactivity ) but among the most interesting are young children ( and the later older children , adolescents , and adults ) internal working models of close relationships ( 1999 . Cassidy , 2011 Main , Kaplan , Cassidy , 1985 ) As attachment develops , interactions between infant and caregiver form the basis of the infants internal working model a set of beliefs and expectations they build about the availability and reliability of their attachment ( Sherman , Rice , Cassidy , 2015 ) These internal working models are constructed starting at a very young age , about the age of four months , as soon as children have the capacity to mentally represent their experiences . It is as if over the few years of life infants are taking mental notes about how these important relationships function , and the effects of these expectations can be seen in the ways infants wait after sending out distress signals to see if their caregiver is on the way or they need to escalate their communications . The , repeated experiences babies have with their caregivers become more generalized and internalized over time , indicating whether the attachment can be counted on for dependable comfort and protection in times of distress , and so can serve as a secure base from which the infant can explore the world . This inner representation then informs what types of behavior can be expected from others , whether a person will pick them up when they are upset or should be turned to for comfort when they are sad . As children start to interact and form relationships with others , like other family members , preschool teachers , and peers , their internal working models forms the basis of their expectations for how people will respond to them , and therefore shape their own behavior in relationships . Negative experiences with one caregiver may , for example , create the expectation that people are not to be trusted , and so young children are less able to be their authentic selves , or reach out to others when they are upset and need comfort . Because these internal working models behavior , they may shape the quality of their subsequent relationships , all the way up until adolescence and young adulthood ( Allen , 2010 ) For example , adolescents with internal working models may show ambivalence about close romantic relationships , both intensely wanting them but also being resentful about the extent to which their needs are being met ( Shaver , 2010 ) Though these inner representations tend to stay somewhat stable for children with secure attachments , they can continue to grow and change as children age and gather more social experiences . For example , consistent , warm , and caring interactions with other attachment , such as grandmothers or preschool teachers , have the power to change those beliefs allowing children to rework a negative internal working model into a positive one . Internal working models can be reworked at any age , as children encounter family members , neighbors , teachers or other adults who provide high quality care . For adolescents , close and caring friendships can provide opportunities to reconsider and expand their understanding of relationships . The good news is that , as adults , we can become aware of our own internal working models of relationships and see how we may be bringing things from previous relationships into subsequent ones , in ways that are causing us problems . Then we can intentionally rework our expectations about others in ways that make it easier for us to form secure relationships with our friends , romantic partners , and eventually our own children . 100 Attachment
References , 1979 ) attachment . American Psychologist , 34 ( 10 ) Waters , Wall , 1978 ) Patterns of attachment . 1999 ) Differences in behavior between European and Japanese Americans Effect on competence evaluations . Journal of Psychology , 30 , Allen , 2010 ) Attachment in adolescence A move to the level of emotion regulation . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 27 , American Psychiatric Association . 2013 ) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , edition ( Washington , Author . Berk , 2007 ) Development through the life span ( Boston and Bacon . Berne , A . 2006 ) The primitive Considerations in the infant . Optometry Vision Development , 37 ( 1969 ) Attachment and loss . London Hogarth Press . 1982 ) Attachment ( New York Basic Books . 1999 ) Internal representational models of attachment relationships . Infant Mental Health Journal , 11 , 199023 ) 259 , Cassidy , 2011 ) Attachment and the processing of social information across the life span Theory and evidence . Psychological Bulletin , 137 , 1982 ) The life cycle completed . NY Norton Company . Freud , 1938 ) An outline of psychoanalysis . London Hogarth . Shaver , Baek , Chun , 2008 ) Genetic correlates of adult attachment style . Personality Social Psychology Bulletin , 34 , Harlow , 1958 ) The nature of love . American Psychologist , 13 , Main , Kaplan , Cassidy , 1985 ) Security in infancy , childhood , and adulthood A move to the level of representation . In . Waters ( Growing points in attachment theory and research . of the Society for Research in Child Development , 50 , Main , Solomon , 1990 ) Procedures for identifying infants as during the Strange Situation . In , Cummings ( Attachment in the Preschool Years ( Chicago , IL University of Chicago Press . Shaver , 2010 ) The pushes and pulls of close relationships Attachment insecurities and relational ambivalence . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , Marvin , Rotter , The English and Romanian Study Team . 2003 ) attachment following early institutional deprivation . Development and Psychopathology , 15 , Pott , 2000 ) Attachment and culture Security in the United States and Japan . American Psychologist , 55 , Attachment 101
, Schiller , 1996 ) Attachment , maternal sensitivity , and infant temperament during the year of life . Developmental Psychology , 32 , Sherman , Rice , Cassidy , 2015 ) Infant capacities related to building internal working models of attachment A theoretical and empirical review . Developmental Review , 37 , van den Boom , 1994 ) The of temperament and mothering on attachment and exploration An experimental manipulation of sensitive responsiveness among mothers with irritable infants . Child Development , 65 , Van , A . 1999 ) patterns of attachment . In Cassidy Shaver ( Handbook of attachment Theory , research , and clinical applications ( New York . OER Attribution Lifespan Development A Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a additional material ( Internal Working Model of Attachment Table Strange Situation ) by Ellen Skinner Kristen , Portland State University is licensed under a Video Attribution How babies form attachments by Unlocked is licensed All Rights Reserved and is embedded here according to YouTube terms of service . Media Breastfeeding infant Ken Hammond is licensed under a Public Domain license at English Wikipedia is licensed under a Public Domain license Raul Luna is licensed under a BY ( Attribution ) license of Borg is licensed under a ( Attribution license Moro is licensed under a license tonic neck ( at Two is ( Creative Commons Zero ) license is licensed under a ( Creative Commons Zero license attachment is licensed under a Public Domain license is licensed under a Public Domain license 102 Attachment
Temperament Learning Objectives in Infancy Use theory to characterize psychosocial development during . Describe theories of temperament and their dimensions . Explain , and how to provide a good for children with differing temperaments . Describe infant emotions , stranger wariness . and separation anxiety . Explain how a sense of self emerges at the end of . Developmental Task Autonomy Shame and Doubt As the child begins to walk and talk , an interest in independence or autonomy replaces a concern for trust . If infants have built a secure attachment with caregivers , they can use that secure base to explore the world and establish themselves as independent persons , with their own goals and interests . It is the job of the toddler to exert his or her will , and to test the limits of what can be touched , said , and explored . 1982 ) believed that toddlers should be encouraged to explore their environments as freely as safety allows , and in so doing develop a sense of independence that will later grow to support , initiative , and . If a caregiver is overly anxious about the toddler actions for fear that the child will get hurt or is overly critical and controlling about the mistakes they make , the child will get the message that he or she should be ashamed of who they are and instill a sense of doubt in their capacities . Parenting advice based on these ideas would be to keep toddlers safe but to validate their desires for exploration and independence , and to encourage them to learn by doing . Temperament Perhaps you have spent time with a number of infants . How were they alike ?
How did they differ ?
do you compare with your siblings or other children you have known well ?
Have you heard stories from your parents or grandparents about what you were like as a baby ?
If you have any videos of yourself as a baby , how do you seem to be regarding the world ?
You may have noticed that some infants seem to be more comfortable or sociable or in a better mood than others , and that some are more sensitive to noise or more easily distracted than others . These differences may be attributed to temperament . Temperament refers to innate characteristics of infants , including mood , activity level , and emotional reactivity , noticeable soon after birth . In a landmark study started in 1956 , Chess and Thomas ( 1996 ) evaluated 141 children temperament based on parental interviews . Referred to as the New York Longitudinal Study , infants were assessed on dimensions of temperament including activity level , rhythmicity ( regularity of biological functions ) how children deal with Temperament 103
new things ) adaptability to situations , intensity of reactions , threshold of responsiveness ( how intense a stimulus has to be for the child to react ) quality of mood , distractibility , attention span , and persistence . Based on the infants behavioral , they were categorized into three general types of temperament Easy Child ( 40 ) who is able to quickly adapt to routine and new situations , remains calm , is easy to soothe , and usually is in a positive mood . Difficult Child ( 10 ) who reacts negatively to new situations , has trouble adapting to routine , is usually negative in mood , and cries frequently . Child ( 15 ) has a low activity level , adjusts slowly to new situations and is often negative in mood . Table Types of Temperament Type Percentage Description Able to quickly adapt to routine and new situations Remains calm Easy to soothe Usually in positive mood Easy 40 Reacts negatively to new situations Has trouble adapting to routine Usually negative in mood Cries frequently 10 Low activity level 15 Adjusts slowly to new situations Often negative in mood As can be seen the percentages do not equal 100 as some children were not able to be placed neatly into one of the categories . No single type of temperament is invariably good or bad , however , infants with temperaments are more likely than other babies to develop emotional problems , especially if their mothers are depressed or anxious ( et , 2017 ) Children adjustment actually depends on the of their particular temperament to the nature and demands of the environment in which they find themselves . Therefore , what appears to be more important than child temperament is how caregivers respond to it . Think about how you might approach each type of child in order to improve your interactions with them . An easy or child will not need much extra attention unless you want to out whether they are having that have gone unnoticed . A child may need to be given advance warning if new people or situations are going to be introduced . A or feisty child may need to be given extra time to burn off their energy . A caregiver ability to accurately read and work well with the child will determine the between the child temperament and parenting . The goal for parents to provide a good or a good match , meaning their styles align well and and interaction can . The temperamentally active children can do well with parents who support their curiosity but could have problems in a more rigid family . It is this between child temperament and parental demands and expectations that can cause struggles . Rather than believing that discipline alone will bring about improvements in children behavior , our knowledge of temperament may help a parent , teacher or other caregiver gain insight to work more effectively with a child . It is helpful to view temperamental differences as varying styles that can be responded to accordingly , as opposed to good or bad behavior . For example , a persistent child may be to distract from forbidden things such as electrical cords , but this persistence may serve her well in other areas such as . Positive traits can be 104 Temperament
enhanced and negative traits can be channeled . The child underlying style of reaction , however , is unlikely to change . Temperament doesn change dramatically as we grow up , but if we are lucky , we learn how to work with and manage our temperamental qualities . Parenting is bidirectional . Not only do parents affect their children , children their parents . Child characteristics , such as temperament , affect parenting behaviors and roles . For example , an infant with an easy temperament may enable parents to feel more effective , as they are easily able to soothe the child and elicit smiling and cooing . On the other hand , a cranky or fussy infant elicits fewer positive reactions from his or her parents and may result in parents feeling less effective in the parenting role ( et , 2008 ) Over time , parents of more children may become more punitive and less patient with their children ( Clark , Ready , 2000 et , 1999 , 2011 ) Parents who have a fussy , child are less with their marriages and have greater challenges in balancing work and family roles ( Hyde , Goldsmith , 2004 ) Thus , child temperament is one of the child characteristics that how parents behave with their children . Temperament and later personality . Temperament is largely biologically based , although that does not mean that it is genetically determined . Even at birth , a newborn neurophysiology has been shaped by the prenatal environment and birth process they experience . Moreover , during the first few months of life , the quality of an infant attachment and their experience of early adversity can have marked neurophysiological effects . Even if temperament does not change dramatically as we grow up , it may be modulated as one contributor to our childhood and adult personality . In contrast to temperament , personality , defined as an individuals consistent pattern of feeling , thinking , and behaving , is the result of the continuous interplay between this initial biological disposition and experience . Personality also develops from temperament in other ways ( Thompson , Winer , 2010 ) As children mature biologically , temperamental characteristics are woven into subsequent developments . For example , a newborn with high reactivity may show high levels of impulsive behavior , but as capacities for mature , these newfound regulatory capacities may reduce impulsive behavior . Or , a newborn who cries frequently does not necessarily have a grumpy personality over time , with parental support and an increased sense of security , the child might be less likely to experience and express distress . In addition , personality is made up of many other features besides temperament . Children developing , their motivations to achieve or to socialize , their values and goals , their coping styles , their sense of responsibility and conscientiousness , and many other qualities are encompassed into personality . These qualities are by biological dispositions , but even more by the child experiences with others , particularly in close relationships , that guide the growth of individual characteristics . Indeed , personality development begins with the biological foundations of temperament but becomes increasingly elaborated , extended , and over time . The newborn that parents gazed upon becomes an adult with a personality of depth and nuance . Infant Emotions At birth , infants exhibit two emotional responses Attraction and withdrawal . They show attraction to pleasant situations that bring comfort , stimulation , and pleasure , and they withdraw from unpleasant stimulation such as bitter or physical discomfort . At around two months , infants exhibit social engagement in the form of social smiling as they respond with joy to those who engage their positive attention ( 2005 ) Temperament 105
Social smiling becomes more stable and organized as infants learn to use their smiles to engage their parents in interactions . Pleasure is expressed as laughter at to months of age , and displeasure becomes more and differentiated as fear , sadness , or anger between ages and months . Anger or frustration is often expressed in reaction to being prevented from obtaining a goal , such as a toy being removed ( 2010 ) In contrast , sadness is typically the response when infants are deprived of a caregiver ( 2007 ) Fear is often associated with the presence of a stranger , known as stranger wariness , or the departure of others known as , separation anxiety . Both appear sometime between and 15 months after object permanence has been acquired . Further , there is some indication that infants may experience jealousy as young as months of age ( Hart , 2002 ) Emotions are often divided into two general categories Basic emotions , such as interest , happiness , anger , fear , surprise , sadness and disgust , which appear , and emotions , such as envy , pride , shame , guilt , doubt , and embarrassment . Unlike primary emotions , secondary emotions appear as children start to develop a and receive social instruction on when to feel such emotions . The situations in which children learn emotions varies from culture to culture . Individualistic cultures teach us to feel pride in personal accomplishments , while in more collective cultures children are taught to not call attention to themselves , unless you wish to feel embarrassed for doing so ( 1999 ) Facial expressions of emotion are important regulators of social interaction . In the developmental literature , this has been investigated under the concept of social referencing that is , the process whereby infants seek out information from others to clarify a situation and then use that information to act ( Campos , 1983 ) To date , the strongest demonstration of social referencing comes from work on the visual cliff . In the study to investigate this concept , Campos , and ( 1985 ) placed mothers on the far end of the cliff from the infant . Mothers smiled to the infants and placed a toy on top of the safety glass to attract them infants invariably began crawling to their mothers . When the infants were in the center of the table , however , the mother then intentionally displayed an expression of fear , sadness , anger , interest , or joy . The results were clearly different for the different facial expressions no infant crossed the table when the mother showed fear only did when the mother showed anger , 33 crossed when the mother showed sadness , and approximately 75 of the infants crossed when the mother expressed joy or interest . Other studies provide similar support for facial expressions as regulators of social interaction . Experimenters displayed facial expressions of neutral , anger , or disgust toward babies as they moved toward an object and measured the amount of inhibition the babies showed in touching the object ( 1986 ) The results for and olds were the same Anger produced the greatest inhibition , followed by disgust , with neutral the least . This study was later replicated using joy and disgust expressions , altering the method so that the infants were not allowed to touch the toy ( compared with a object ) until one hour after exposure to the expression ( Campos , 2004 ) At 14 months of age , more infants touched the toy when they saw joyful expressions , but fewer touched the toy when the infants saw disgust . A emotional change is in . Emotional refers to strategies we use to control our emotional states so that we can attain goals ( Thompson . 2007 ) This requires effortful control of emotions 106 Temperament
and initially requires assistance from caregivers ( Posner , 2006 ) Young infants have very limited capacity to adjust their emotional states and depend on their caregivers to help soothe themselves . Caregivers can offer distractions to redirect the infants attention and comfort to reduce the emotional distress . As areas of the prefrontal cortex continue to develop , infants can tolerate more stimulation . By to months , babies can begin to shift their attention away from upsetting stimuli ( et al , 2006 ) Older infants and toddlers can more effectively communicate their need for help and can crawl or walk toward or away from various situations ( Cole , Armstrong , 2010 ) This aids in their ability to . Temperament also plays a role in children ability to control their emotional states , and individual differences have been noted in the emotional of infants and toddlers ( Bates , 2006 ) Development of sense of self . During the second year of life , children begin to recognize themselves as they gain a sense of self as object . In a classic experiment by Lewis and Brooks ( 1978 ) children to 24 months of age were placed in front of a mirror after a spot of rouge was placed on their nose as their mothers pretended to wipe something off the child face . If the child reacted by touching his or her own nose rather that of the baby in the mirror , it was taken to suggest that the child recognized the as or herself . Lewis and Brooks found that somewhere between 15 and 24 months most infants developed a sense of awareness . is the realization that you are separate from others ( 2011 ) Once a child has achieved , the child is moving toward understanding social emotions such as guilt , shame or embarrassment , as well as , sympathy or empathy . Figure References , 1999 ) Differences in behavior between European and Japanese Americans Effect on competence evaluations . Journal of Psychology , 30 , 1986 ) Immediate and prolonged effectiveness of negative emotion expressions in inhibiting infants actions ( Unpublished doctoral dissertation ) Berkeley , CA University of California , Berkeley . 2010 ) Fear , anger reactivity trajectories from to 16 months The roles of temperament , regulation , and maternal sensitivity . Developmental Psychology , 46 , Chess , Thomas , A . 1996 ) Temperament Theory and practice . New York . Clark , A , Ready , 2000 ) Mothers personality and its interaction with child temperament as of parenting behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 79 , Cole , Armstrong , 2010 ) The role of language in the development of emotional regulation . Temperament 107
In A . Bell ( Child development at intersection of emotion and cognition ( Washington American Psychological Association . Fabes , Shepard , Guthrie , Murphy , 1999 ) Parental reactions to negative emotions Longitudinal relations to quality of children social functioning . Child Development , 70 , Zhou , Cumberland , 2008 ) Understanding conflict discussions Concurrent and prediction from youths dispositions and parenting . of the Society for Research in Child Development , 73 , Serial No . 290 , No . 1982 ) The life cycle completed . NY Norton Company . Ayers , Martini , von , 2017 ) The impact of postpartum traumatic stress disorder symptoms on child development A population based , study . Psychological Medicine , 47 ( Hart , 2002 ) Jealousy in infants . Infancy , Campos , 2004 ) The retention effects of an adult emotional displays on infant behavior . Child Development , 75 ( Hyde , Goldsmith , 2004 ) Children temperament and behavior problems predict their employed mothers work functioning . Child Development , 75 , 2011 ) Nature and nurturing Parenting in the context of child temperament . Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review , 14 , doi , Campos , 1983 ) Emotions as behavior regulators Social referencing in infancy . In . Emotion Theory , research , and experience ( New York , NY Academic Press . 2011 ) Development in the early years Socialization , motor development , and consciousness . Annual Review of Psychology , 62 , A . 2005 ) Developmental changes in the relationships between infant attention and emotion during early communications The month transition . Developmental Psychology , 41 , Lewis , Brooks , 1978 ) and emotional development . In Lewis ( Genesis of behavior ( Vol . New York Plenum Press . 2007 ) Communication in early infancy An arena of intersubjective learning . Infant Behavior and Development , 30 , Bates , 2006 ) Temperament . In ( Handbook of child psychology Vol . Social , emotional , and personality development ( Wiley . 113 , Posner , I . 2006 ) Temperament , attention , and the development of . In Phillips ( handbook of early childhood development ( MA . Campos , 1985 ) Maternal emotional signaling Its effect on the visual cliff behavior of . Developmental Psychology , 21 , 108 Temperament
Thompson , A . 2006 ) The development of the person . In Damon ( Handbook of child psychology ( New York Wiley . 114 Thompson , 2007 ) Taming the tempest in the teapot . In ( development in the toddler years Transitions and transformations ( New York . Thompson , Winer , 2010 ) The individual child Temperament , emotion , self , and personality . In Lamb ( Developmental science An advanced textbook ( New York , NY Psychology Press Taylor . Francis . OER Attribution Lifespan Development A Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under a Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution International License Child Growth and Development by College of the , Jennifer Paris , Antoinette Ricardo , and Dawn and is used under a BY international license Media smiling infant is licensed under a Public Domain license Mirror baby is licensed under a BY ( Attribution ! license Temperament 109
Language Cognition Motor Development Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reactions ( sucking and rooting ) to more advanced motor functioning . As mentioned during the prenatal section , development occurs according to the Cephalocaudal ( from head to tail ) and ( from the midline outward ) principles . For instance , babies learn to hold their heads up , then to sit with assistance , then to sit unassisted , followed later by crawling , pulling up , cruising or walking while holding on to something , and then unassisted walking ( 1989 ) As motor skills develop , there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve . For each milestone there is an average age , as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached . An example of a developmental milestone is a baby holding up its head . Babies on average are able to hold up their heads at weeks old , and 90 of babies achieve this between weeks and months old . On average , most babies sit alone at months . Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength , and 90 of babies achieve this milestone between and months old . If the child is displaying delays on several milestones , that is reason for concern , and the parent or caregiver should check in with the child pediatrician . Developmental delays can be and addressed through early intervention . Motor Skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects . Gross motor skills focus on large muscle groups that control our head , torso , arms and legs and involve larger movements ( balancing , running , and jumping ) These skills begin to develop . Examples include moving to bring the chin up when lying on the stomach , moving the chest up , and rocking back and forth on hands and knees . But it also includes exploring an object with one feet as many babies do as early as weeks of age if seated in a carrier or other device that frees the hips . This may be easier than reaching for an object with the hands , which ' requires much more practice ( Berk , 2007 ) Sometimes an infant will try to move toward an object while crawling and surprisingly move backward because of the greater amount of strength in the arms than in the legs . Fine motor skills focus on the muscles in our fingers , toes , and eyes , and enable ( coordination of small actions ( grasping a toy , writing with a pencil , and using a spoon ) Newborns can not grasp objects voluntarily but do wave their arms toward objects of interest . At about months of age , the infant is able to reach for , i , ii , the an object , with both arms and within a few weeks , with only one arm . At this age grasping an object involves the use of the and palm , but no thumbs . This is known as the Palmer Grasp . The use of the thumb comes at about months of age when the infant is able to grasp an object using the forefinger and thumb . Now the infant uses a Pincer Grasp , and this ability greatly enhances the ability to control and manipulate an object . Infants take great delight in this newfound ability . They may spend hours picking up small objects from the and placing them in containers . By months , an infant can also watch a moving object , reach for it as it approaches , and grab it . Sensory Capacities Throughout much of history , the newborn was considered a passive , disorganized being who possessed minimal 110 Language Cognition
abilities . William James , an early psychologist , had described the newborns world as a blooming , buzzing confusion ( 1985 ) However , current research techniques have demonstrated just how developed the newborn is with especially organized sensory and perceptual abilities . Vision . The womb is a dark environment void of visual stimulation . Consequently , vision is one of the most poorly developed senses at birth , and time is needed to build neural pathways between the eyes and the brain ( American Association , 2019 ) Newborns typically can not see further than to 10 inches away from their faces ( 2019 ) An old vision is . This means an object 20 feet away from an infant has the same clarity as an object 300 feet away from an adult with normal vision . By visual acuity has sharpened to , which would allow them the see the letter at the top of a standard eye chart ( 2016 ) As a result , the world initially looks blurry to young infants ( Johnson . 2015 ) Why is visual acuity so poor in the infant ?
The fovea , which is the central field of vision in the retina and allows us to see sharp detail , is not fully developed at birth , and does not start to reach adult levels of development until 15 months ( Li Ding , 2017 ) Even by 45 months some of the sensory neurons ( cones ) of the fovea are still not fully grown . Can babies see color ?
Young infants can perceive color , but the colors need to be very pure forms of basic colors , such as vivid red or green rather than weaker pastel shades . Most studies report that babies can see the full spectrum of colors by months of age ( 2019 ) Newborn infants prefer and orient to stimuli more than they do other patterned stimuli ( et , 2005 ) They also prefer images of faces that are upright and not scrambled ( Chien , 2011 ) Infants also quickly learn to distinguish the face of their mother from faces of other women ( Morton , De , 2001 ) When viewing a face , olds on the outer edges of the face rather than the eyes , nose , or mouth , but olds gaze more at the inner features , especially the eyes ( 1978 ) Researchers have examined the development of attention and tracking in the visual system and have found the following for young infants have disengaging their attention and can spend several minutes gazing at a stimulus ( Johnson , 2015 ) 1981 ) found that when tracking an object visually , the eye movements of newborns and olds are not smooth but saccadic , that is jerky movements . also found that eye movements lag behind an object motion . This means young infants do not anticipate the trajectory of the object . By two months of age , their eye movements are becoming smoother , but they still lag behind the motion of the object and will not achieve this until about three to four months of age ( Johnson , 2015 ) Newborns also orient more to the visual toward the side of the head , than to the visual on either side of the nose ( Lewis , 1979 ) By two to three months , stimuli in both are now attended to equally ( Johnson , 2015 ) Binocular vision , which requires input from both eyes , is evident around the third month and continues to develop during the six months ( 2003 ) By six months infants can perceive depth perception in pictures as well ( Sen , 2001 ) Infants who have experience crawling and exploring will pay greater attention to visual cues of depth and modify their actions accordingly ( Berk , 2007 ) Language Cognition 111
Hearing . The infant sense of hearing is very keen at birth , and the ability to hear is evidenced as soon as the seventh month of prenatal development . Newborns prefer their mothers voices over another female even if speaking the same material ( Fifer , 1980 ) Additionally , they will register in utero information heard from their mother voice . and Spence ( 1986 ) tested 16 infants ( average age of hours ) whose mothers had previously read to them prenatally . The mothers read several passages to their fetuses , including the 28 paragraphs of the Cat in the Hat , beginning when they were months pregnant . The fetuses had been exposed to the stories an average of 67 times or hours . When the experimental infants were tested , the target stories ( previously heard ) were more reinforcing than the novel story as measured by their rate of sucking . However , for control infants , the target Figure 3120 stories were not more reinforcing than the novel story indicating that the experimental infants had heard them before . An infant can distinguish between very similar sounds as early as one month after birth and can distinguish between a familiar and voice even earlier . Infants are especially sensitive to the frequencies of sounds in human speech and prefer the exaggeration of speech , which will be discussed later . Additionally , infants are innately ready to respond to the sounds of any language , but between six and nine months they show preference for listening to their native language ( Cutler , 1993 ) Their ability to distinguish the sounds that are not in the language around them diminishes rapidly ( et , 1995 ) Touch and pain . Immediately after birth , a newborn is sensitive to touch and temperature , and is also highly sensitive to pain , responding with crying and cardiovascular responses ( 2013 ) Newborns who are circumcised , which is the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis , without anesthesia experience pain as demonstrated by increased blood pressure , increased heart rate , decreased oxygen in the blood , and a surge of stress hormones ( United States National Library of Medicine , 2016 ) Research has demonstrated that infants who were circumcised without anesthesia experienced more pain and fear during routine childhood vaccines . Fortunately , today many local pain killers are currently used during circumcision . Taste and smell . Studies of taste and smell demonstrate that babies respond with different facial expressions , suggesting that certain preferences are innate . Newborns can distinguish between sour , bitter , sweet , and salty and show a preference for sweet . Newborns also prefer the smell of their mothers . An infant only days old is more likely to turn toward its own mother breast pad than to the breast pad of another baby mother ( Porter , Makin , Davis , 1992 ) and within hours of birth an infant also shows a preference for the face of its own mother ( 2001 , Sai , 1989 ) 32 . Infants seem to be born with the ability to perceive the world in an way that is , through stimulation from more than one sensory modality . For example , infants who sucked on a with either a smooth or textured surface preferred to look at a corresponding ( smooth or textured ) visual model of the . By months , 112 Language Cognition
infants can match lip movements with speech sounds and can match other audiovisual events . Sensory processes are certainly affected by the infants developing motor abilities ( Jacob , Chapin , 2014 ) Reaching , crawling , and other actions allow the infant to see , touch , and organize his or her experiences in new ways . How are infants tested . Habituation procedures , that is measuring decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations , have increasingly been used to evaluate infants in studies of the development of perceptual and memory skills . 2005 ) describes a habituation procedure used when measuring the rate of the sucking . Researchers measure the initial baseline rate of sucking to a equipped with that measure muscle contractions . Next , an auditory stimulus is presented , such as a human voice uttering a speech sound such as da . The rate of sucking will typically increase with the new sound , but then decrease to baseline levels as da is repeatedly presented , showing habituation . If the sound ma was then presented , the rate of sucking would again increase , demonstrating that the infant can discriminate between these two stimuli . Additionally , the speed or with which infants show habituation has been shown to predict outcomes in behaviors , such as language acquisition and verbal and nonverbal intelligence . Infants who show during habituation , or habituate at slower than normal rates , have been found to be at an increased risk for developmental delays . Infants with Down syndrome , infants , malnourished infants , and premature infants have all been studied . Researchers have found that at the age of 16 months , infants show rates of habituation comparable to newborn infants ( 2005 ) Learning Objectives Cognitive Development in infancy and Explain the concepts of schema , assimilation , and accommodation . List and describe the six of sensorimotor intelligence . Describe the characteristics of infant memory . Describe components and developmental progression of language . Identify and compare the theories of language . and the Sensorimotor Stage believed that children , even infants , actively try to make sense of their environments . He viewed intelligence , not as knowledge or facts we acquire , but as the processes through which we adapt to our environment . He argued that differences between children and adults are not based on the fact that children know less than adults , but because they think in different ways the adults do . used the clinical method in which he closely observed individual children in great detail over long periods of time in their natural environment . From these observations he developed his theory of cognitive development , which posits four qualitatively different stages ( 1954 ) Schema , assimilation and addition to descriptions of different stages , was also very interested in the processes by which people come to understand the world ( and in the process , to understand Language Cognition 113
themselves ) He was focused on universal physical properties of environments , like time , space , and causality , which he called thought . He argued that people make sense of the world by interacting with it . He assumed that all people , even infants , are active , curious , energetic , and intrinsically motivated , and it is through their active attempts to make things happen that they learn about natural laws . held that , as they go , infants and children construct models of how the world works , which are partial , incomplete , and not totally correct . He called these models , schema , which an be thought of as for organizing information . As we continue interacting with the world , we keep trying out our mental models , and eventually encounter experiences that contradict them . These contradictions allow us to revise our models so that they can better account for the interactions we are experiencing . As models are revised , they are more meaning that they guide our actions more effectively as we try to reach our goals . Children develop their models , that is , their schemata , through processes of assimilation and accommodation . When faced with something new , a child may demonstrate assimilation , which is the new information into an existing schema , such as calling all animals with four legs doggies because he or she has the concept of doggie . When it becomes clear that the new information no longer into the old schema , instead of assimilating the information , the child may demonstrate accommodation , which is expanding the framework of knowledge to accommodate the new situation and thus learning a new concept to more accurately name the animal . For example , recognizing that a horse is different than a zebra means the child has accommodated , and now the child has both a zebra schema and a horse schema . Even as adults we continue to try and make sense of new situations by determining whether they into our old way of thinking ( assimilation ) or whether we need to modify our thoughts ( accommodation ) 114 Language Cognition
Assimilation Accommodation ' I Figure also described a process of organization , in which we combine existing schemes into new and more complex ones . By grouping and , and connecting them together , we can grow and our knowledge structures . Finally , he pointed to the process of disequilibration , where we detect discrepancies or contradictions between the models we are constructing and the experiences we are having in our interactions with the world . These contradictions can produce confusion or frustration , but they are developmentally helpful , because they lead to attempts to readjust actions and models so they are in better alignment , though a process called equilibration . Disequilibration and equilibration can also be applied to models themselves , as we detect that of models contradict each other or are not in alignment . Though processes of equilibration we can models so that they are more internally consistent and coherent . Cognitive development during infancy . theories revolutionized the way that thought about infants . He was one of the researchers to argue that infants are intelligent and they are busily constructing Language Cognition 115
their own understandings of the world through their interactions with the environment . According to the perspective , infants learn about the world primarily through their senses and motor abilities ( Harris , 2005 ) These basic motor and sensory abilities provide the foundation for the cognitive skills that will emerge during the subsequent stages of cognitive development . The first stage of cognitive development is referred to as the sensorimotor stage and it occurs through six . Table the ages typically associated with each substage . Table Infant Ages for the Six of the Sensorimotor Stage Substage ( month ) Substage Primary Circular Reactions ( months ) Substage Secondary Circular Reactions ( months ) Substage Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions ( months ) Substage Tertiary Circular Reactions ( months ) Substage Beginning of Representational Thought ( months ) adapted from , 2019 Substage 11 . Newborns learn about their world through the use of their , such as when sucking , reaching , and grasping . Eventually the use of these becomes more deliberate and purposeful . Substage 21 Primary Circular Reactions . During these next months , the infant begins to actively involve his or her own body in some form of repeated activity . An infant may accidentally engage in a behavior and it interesting such as making a vocalization . This interest motivates the infant to try to do it again and helps the infant learn a new behavior that originally occurred by chance . The behavior is as circular because of the repetition , and as primary because it centers on the infant own body . Substage 31 Secondary Circular Reactions . The infant begins to interact with objects in the environment . At the infant interacts with objects ( eg , a crib mobile ) accidentally , but then these contacts with the objects are deliberate and become a repeated activity . The infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the outside world and takes delight in being able to make things happen . Repeated motion brings particular interest as , for example , the infant is able to bang two lids together from the cupboard when seated on the kitchen . Substage ! Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions . The infant combines these basic and simple behaviors and uses planning and coordination to achieve a goal . Now the infant can engage in behaviors that others perform and anticipate upcoming events . Perhaps because of continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex , the infant become capable of having a thought and carrying out a planned , activity . For example , an infant sees a toy car under the kitchen table and then crawls , reaches , and grabs the toy . The infant is coordinating both internal and external activities to achieve a planned goal . Substage ! Tertiary Circular Reactions . The toddler is considered a little scientist and begins exploring the world in a manner , using both motor skills and planning abilities . For example , the child might throw her ball down the stairs to see what happens . The toddler active engagement in experimentation helps them learn about their world . 116 ) Language Cognition
Substage 61 Beginning of Representational Thought . The sensorimotor period ends with the appearance of symbolic or representational thought . The toddler now has a basic understanding that objects can be used as symbols . Additionally , the child is able to solve problems using mental strategies , to remember something heard days before and repeat it , and to engage in pretend play . This initial movement from a approach to knowing about the world to the more mental world of substage six marks the transition to thought . Development of object critical milestone Figure 324 i i I during the sensorimotor period is the development of object permanence . Object permanence is the understanding that even if something is out of sight , it still exists ( Schilling , 2000 ) According to , young infants can not represent objects mentally , so they do not remember it after it has been removed from sight . studied infants reactions when a toy was shown to them and then hidden under a blanket . Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy , indicating that they knew it still existed , whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused . emphasizes this construct because it is an objective way for children to demonstrate how they mentally represent their world . Children have typically acquired this milestone by months . Once toddlers have mastered object permanence , they enjoy games like hide and seek , and they realize that when someone leaves the room they are still in the world . Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to objects . In view , around the same time children develop object permanence , they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety , which is a fear of unfamiliar people ( Crain , 2005 ) Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger , by clinging to a caregiver , or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces , such as parents . Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema therefore , she can not predict what her experience with that stranger will be like , which results in a fear response . Critique of . thought that children ability to understand objects , such as learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken , was a cognitive skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment . Today , developmental psychologists question the timetables laid out . Researchers have found that even very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with those objects ( 1987 , Li , Wu , 2011 ) For example , believed that infants did not fully master object permanence until substage of the sensorimotor period ( Thomas , 1979 ) However , infants seem to be able to recognize that objects have permanence at much younger ages . Diamond ( 1985 ) found that in ants show earlier knowledge if the waiting period is shorter . At age months , they retrieved the hidden object if their wait for retrieving the object is no longer than seconds , and at months if the wait is no longer than seconds . Figure . In ( 1987 ) study , infants observed a truck ( a ) roll down an unobstructed track , roll down an unobstructed track with an obstruction ( box ) beside it , and ( roll down and pass through what appeared to be an obstruction . Language Cognition 117
Development of Memory during Infancy Memory requires the capacity to mentally represent experience , so it should not be surprising that infant memory is rather and fragile . As a result , older children and adults experience infantile amnesia , the inability to recall memories from the first few years of life . Several hypotheses have been proposed for this amnesia . From the biological perspective , it has been suggested that infantile amnesia is due to the immaturity of the infant brain , especially those areas that are crucial to the formation of autobiographical memory , such as the hippocampus . From the cognitive perspective , it has been suggested that the lack of linguistic skills of babies and toddlers limit their ability to mentally represent events thereby , reducing their ability to encode memory . Moreover , even if infants do form such early memories , older children and adults may not be able to access them because they may be employing very different , more linguistically based , retrieval cues than infants used when forming largely photographic or visual memories . Finally , social theorists argue that episodic memories of personal experiences may hinge on an understanding of self , something that is clearly lacking in infants and young toddlers . However , in a series of clever studies Carolyn and her colleagues have demonstrated that infants can remember events from their life , even if these memories are . infants were taught that they could make a mobile hung over their crib shake by kicking their legs . The infants were placed in their crib , on their backs . A ribbon was tied to one foot and the other end to a mobile . At first infants made random movements , but then came to realize that by kicking they could make the mobile shake . After two sessions with the mobile , the mobile was removed . One week later the mobile was reintroduced to one group of infants and most of the babies immediately started kicking their legs , indicating that they remembered their prior experience with the mobile . A second group of infants was shown the mobile two weeks later , and the babies made only random movements . The memory had faded ( 1987 Giles , 2011 ) and ( 1987 ) found that could remember the mobile after two weeks if they were shown the mobile and watched it move , even though they were not tied to it . This reminder helped most infants to remember the connection between their kicking and the movement of the mobile . Like many researchers of infant memory , 1990 ) found infant memory to be very context dependent . In other words , the sessions with the mobile and the later retrieval sessions had to be conducted under very similar circumstances or else the babies would not remember their prior experiences with the mobile . For instance , if the first mobile had had yellow blocks with blue letters , but at the later retrieval session the blocks were blue with yellow letters , the babies would not kick . Infants older than months of age can retain information for longer periods of time they also need less reminding to retrieve information in memory . Studies of deferred imitation , that is , the imitation of actions after a time delay , can occur as early as of age ( 2005 ) but only if infants are allowed to practice the behavior they were shown . By 12 months of age , infants no longer need to practice the behavior in order to retain the memory for four weeks ( Klein , 1999 ) Language Development Our vast intelligence also allows us to have language , a system of communication that uses symbols in a regular way to create meaning . Language gives us the ability to communicate our thoughts to others by talking , reading , and writing . Although other species have at least some ability to communicate , as far as we know , none of them have language . There are many components of language that will now be reviewed . Components of Language Phoneme A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a language . The word bit 118 Language Cognition
has three . In spoken languages , are produced by the positions and movements of the vocal tract , including our lips , teeth , tongue , vocal cords , and throat , whereas in sign languages are by the shapes and movement of the hands . There are hundreds of unique that can be made by human speakers , but most languages only use a small subset of the possibilities . English contains about 45 , whereas other languages have as few as 15 and others more than 60 . The Hawaiian language contains fewer as it includes only vowels ( a , i , and ) and consonants ( and ) Infants are born able to detect all , but they lose their ability to do so as they get older by 10 months of age a childs ability to recognize becomes very similar to that of the adult speakers of the native language . that were initially differentiated come to be treated as equivalent ( Tees , 2002 ) Whereas are the smallest units of sound in language , a morpheme is a string of one or more that makes up the smallest units of meaning in a language . Some are and used to modify other words . For example , the syllable as in rewrite or repay means to do again , and the as in happiest or coolest means to the Semantics Semantics refers to the set of rules we use to obtain meaning from . For example , adding ed to the end of a verb makes it past tense . Syntax Syntax is the set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences . Each language has a different syntax . The syntax of the English language requires that each sentence have a noun and a verb , each of which may be by adjectives and adverbs . Some make use of the order in which words appear . For example , in English the meaning of the sentence The man bites the dog is different from The dog bites the Pragmatics The social side of language is expressed through pragmatics , or how we communicate effectively and appropriately with others . Examples of pragmatics include , staying on topic , volume and tone of voice , and appropriate eye contact . Lastly , words do not possess meanings , but change their interpretation as a function of the context in which they are spoken . We use contextual information , the information surrounding language , to help us interpret it . Examples of contextual information include our knowledge and nonverbal expressions , such as facial expressions , postures , and gestures . Misunderstandings can easily arise if people are not attentive to contextual information or if some of it is missing , such as it may be in newspaper headlines or in text messages . Language Developmental Progression An important aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition . The order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures ( Hatch , 1983 ) Starting before birth , babies begin to develop language and communication skills . At birth , babies recognize their mothers voice and can discriminate between the language ( spoken by their mothers and foreign languages , and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language ( Blossom Morgan , 2006 et , 1994 , 1981 ) Language Cognition 119
Do newborns communicate ?
Of course , they do . They do not , however , communicate with the use of oral language . Instead , they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture ( being relaxed or still ) gestures , cries , and facial expressions . A person who spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger , discomfort , or frustration . Intentional vocalizations . In terms of producing spoken language , babies begin to coo almost immediately . Cooing is a combination of a consonant and a vowel sound ( coo or ba ) Interestingly , babies replicate sounds from their own languages . A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a Figure different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or . These gurgling , musical vocalizations can serve as a source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride . Cooing serves as practice for vocalization , as well as the infant hears the sound of his or her own voice and tries to repeat sounds that are entertaining . Infants also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as they alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take their turn again when the other persons vocalization has stopped . At about four to six months of age , infants begin making even more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language . Guttural sounds , clicks , consonants , and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard . Eventually , these sounds will no longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed to a particular language . At about months , infants begin babbling , engaging in intentional vocalizations that lack meaning and comprise a repeated sequence , such as , Children babble as practice in creating sounds , and by the time they are a year old , the babbling uses primarily the sounds of the language that they are learning ( de , 1984 ) These vocalizations have a conversational tone that sounds meaningful even though it is not . Babbling also helps children understand the social , communicative function of language . Children who are exposed to sign language babble in sign by making hand movements that represent real language ( 1991 ) Gesturing . Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak , and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development ( 2005 ) Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants , reactions , and feelings . Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for some toddlers , sign language is sometimes taught to enhance an infant ability to communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing . The rhythm and pattern of language is used when deaf babies sign , just as it is when hearing babies babble . Understanding . At around ten months of age , the infant can understand more than he or she can say , which is referred to as receptive language . You may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to learn a second language . You may have been able to follow a conversation more easily than contribute to it . One of the words that children understand is their own name , usually by about months , followed by commonly used words like bottle , mama , and doggie by 10 to 12 months ( 1995 ) Infants shake their head no around months , and they respond to verbal requests to do things like wave or blow a kiss around months . Children also use contextual information , particularly the cues that parents provide , to help them learn language . Children learn that people are usually referring to things that they are looking at when they are speaking ( Baldwin , 1993 ) and that that the speakers emotional expressions are related to the content of their speech . 120 Language Cognition
speech . Children begin using their words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages . These expressions are referred to as speech . For example , the child may say ju for the word juice and use this sound when referring to a bottle . The listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase , and when this is someone who has spent time with the child , interpretation is not too . But someone who has not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant . Imagine the parent who to a friend exclaims , Ezra talking all the time now ! The friend hears only ju ga da to which the parent explains means , I want some milk when I go with Language Errors The early utterances of children contain many errors , for instance , confusing and , or and . The words children create are often , in part because they are not yet able to make the more complex sounds of the real language ( 1992 ) Children may say for kitty , nana for banana , and for spaghetti because it is easier . Often these early words are accompanied by gestures that may also be easier to produce than the words themselves . Children become increasingly accurate between and years , but some problems may persist until school age . A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can be used for only that particular object , which is referred to as . Only the family Irish Setter is a doggie , for example . More often , however , a child may think that a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object , which is called . For example , all animals become doggies . The error is often the result of children learning the meaning of a word in a context , while the second language error is a function of the child smaller vocabulary . First words and cultural . If the child is using English , words tend to be nouns . The child labels objects such as cup , ball , or other items that they regularly interact with . In a language such as Chinese , however , children may learn more verbs . This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects based on culture . Chinese children may be taught to notice action and relationships between objects , while children from the United States may be taught to name an object and its qualities ( color , texture , size , These differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students from China and the United States ( et , 2008 ) sentences and telegraphic ( text message ) speech . By the time they become toddlers , children have a vocabulary of about words and begin putting those words together in telegraphic speech , such as baby or doggie pretty . Words needed to convey messages are spoken , but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not yet used . These expressions sound like a telegraph , or perhaps a better analogy today would be that they read like a text message . Telegraphic message speech occurs when unnecessary words are not used . Give baby ball is used rather than Give the baby the ball . speech . Why is a horse a horsie ?
you ever wondered why adults tend to use baby talk or that type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children ?
This represents a universal tendency and is known as speech . It involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant , using a voice , and the phrase with great facial expression ( Clark , 2009 ) Why is this done ?
Infants are frequently more attuned to the tone of voice of the person speaking than to the content of the words themselves and are aware of the target of speech . and ( 1994 ) found that infants listened longer to a woman who was speaking to a baby than to a woman who was speaking to another adult . Adults may use this form of speech in order to clearly articulate the sounds of a word so that the child can hear the sounds involved . It may also be because when this type of speech is used , the infant pays more attention to the speaker and this sets up a pattern of interaction in which the speaker and listener are in tune with one another . Theories of Language Development Psychological theories of language learning differ in terms of the importance they place on nature and nurture . Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture . Researchers now believe that language acquisition is Language Cognition 121
partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment ( Newport , 1995 Stork , 1974 ) First to be discussed are the biological theories , including nativist , brain areas and critical periods . Next , learning theory and social pragmatics will be presented . Nativism . The linguist is a believer in the nature approach to language , arguing that human brains contain a language acquisition device ( LAD ) that includes a universal grammar that underlies all human language ( 1965 , 1972 ) According to this approach , each of the many languages spoken around the world ( there are between and ) is an individual example of the same underlying set of procedures that are hardwired into human brains . account proposes that children are born with a knowledge of general rules of syntax that determine how sentences are constructed . Language develops as long as the Figure . infant IS exposed to it . No teaching , training , or reinforcement is required for language to develop as proposed by Skinner . differentiates between the deep structure of an idea that is , how the idea is represented in the fundamental universal grammar that is common to all languages , and the surface structure of the idea or how it is expressed in any one language . Once we hear or express a thought in surface structure , we generally forget exactly how it happened . At the end of a lecture , you will remember a lot of the deep structure ( the ideas expressed by the instructor ) but you can not reproduce the surface structure ( the exact words that the instructor used to communicate the ideas ) Although there is general agreement among psychologists that babies are genetically programmed to learn language , there is still debate about idea that there is a universal grammar that can account for all language learning . Evans and ( 2009 ) surveyed the world languages and found that none of the presumed underlying features of the language acquisition device were entirely universal . In their search they found languages that did not have noun or verb phrases , that did not have tenses ( past , present , future ) and even some that did not have nouns or verbs at all , even though a basic assumption of a universal grammar is that all languages should share these features . Brain areas for language . For the 90 of people who are , language is stored and controlled by the left cerebral cortex , although for some this pattern is reversed . These differences can easily be seen in the results of studies that show that listening to and producing language creates greater activity in the left hemisphere than in the right . area , an area in front of the left hemisphere near the motor cortex , is responsible for language production ( Figure ) This area was localized in the by the French physician Paul , who studied patients with lesions to various parts of the brain . area , an area of the brain next to the auditory cortex , is responsible for language comprehension . 122 Language Cognition
area Motor cortex area Auditory cortex Figure . Drawing of Brain Showing and Areas For most people the left hemisphere is specialized for language . area , near the motor cortex , is involved in language production , whereas area , near the auditory cortex , is specialized for language comprehension . Figure . Victor Is there a critical period for learning language ?
Psychologists believe there is a critical period , a time in which learning can easily occur , for language . This critical period appears to be between infancy and puberty ( 1967 Roberts , 1959 ) but isolating the exact timeline has been elusive . Children who are not exposed to language early in their lives will likely never grasp the grammatical and communication nuances of language . Case studies , including Victor the Wild Child , who was abandoned as a baby in century France and not discovered until he was 12 , and Genie , a child whose parents kept her locked away from 18 months until 13 years of age , are two examples of children who were deprived of language . Both children made some progress in socialization after they were rescued , but neither of them ever developed a working understanding of language ( 1993 ) Yet , such case studies are fraught with many confounds . How much did the years of social isolation and malnutrition contribute to their problems in language development ?
A better test for the notion of critical periods for language is found in studies of children with hearing loss . Several studies show that the earlier children are diagnosed with hearing impairment and receive treatment , the Language Cognition 123 better the child language development . For instance , et al . 2015 ) reported that when children hearing loss was during newborn screening , and subsequently addressed , the majority showed normal language development when later tested at months , Crawford , Ni , and ( 2011 ) reported that early language intervention in children who were moderately to severely hard of hearing , demonstrated normal outcomes in language by to years of age . et al . 2015 ) reported that children who were with hearing aids by months of age showed good levels of language development by age 21 Those whose hearing was not corrected until after 18 months showed lower language performance , even in the early preschool years . However , this study did reveal that those whose hearing was corrected by had greatly improved language skills by age . The research with hearing impaired children reveals that this critical period for language development is not exclusive to infancy , and that the brain is still receptive to language development in early childhood Fortunately , it is has become routine to screen hearing in newborns , because when hearing loss is not treated early , it can delay spoken language , literacy , and impact children social skills ( 2015 ) Learning theory . Perhaps the most straightforward explanation of language development is that it occurs through the principles of learning , including association and reinforcement ( Skinner , 1953 ) Additionally , 1977 ) described the importance of observation and imitation of others in learning language . There must be at least some truth to the idea that language is learned through environmental interactions or nurture . Children learn the language that they hear spoken around them rather than some other language Also supporting this idea is the gradual improvement in language skills over time It seems that children modify their language through imitation and reinforcement , such as parental praise and being understood . For example , when a child asks for juice , he might say , me juice , to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice . However , language can not be entirely learned . For one , children learn words too fast for them to be learned through reinforcement . Between the ages of 18 53 months and years , children learn up to 10 new words every day ( 1993 ) More importantly , language is more generative than it is imitative . Language is not a set of ideas and sentences that we choose when we need them , but rather a system of rules and procedures that allows us to create an number of statements , thoughts , and ideas , including those that have never previously occurred . When a child says that she in the pool , for instance , she is showing . No adult speaker of English would ever say , yet it is easily generated from the normal system of producing language . 124 Language Cognition
Other evidence that refutes the idea that all language is learned through experience comes from the observation that children may learn languages better than they ever hear them . Deaf children whose parents do not communicate using very well nevertheless are able to learn it perfectly on their own and may even make up their own language if they need to ( Meadow , 1998 ) A group of deaf children in a school in , whose teachers could not sign , invented a way to communicate through up signs ( 2005 ) The development of this new Nicaraguan Sign Language has continued and changed as new generations of students have come to the school and started using the language . Although the original system was not a real language , it is becoming closer and closer every year , showing the development of a new language in modern times . Social pragmatics . Another view emphasizes the very social nature of human language . Language from this view is not only a cognitive skill , but also a social one . Language is a tool humans use to communicate , connect to , and inform others . Most of all , language comes out of a need to cooperate . The social nature of language has been demonstrated by a number of studies showing that children use several skills ( such as pointing and Figure . Albert other gestures ) to communicate not only their own needs , but what others may need . So , a child watching her mother search for an object may point to the object to help her mother it . to have been shown to make linguistic repairs when it is clear that another person does not understand them ( Grosse , Carpenter , 2010 ) Grosse et al . 2010 ) found that even when the child was given the desired object , if there had been any misunderstanding along the way ( such as a delay in being handed the object , or the experimenter calling the object by the wrong name ) children will make linguistic repairs . This would suggest that children are using language not only as a means of achieving some material goal , but also to make themselves understood in the mind of another person . Supplemental Materials Optional Reading . The Brain in the First Two Years Some of the most dramatic physical change that occurs during this period is in the brain . We are born with most of the brain cells that we will ever have that is , about 85 billion neurons whose function is to store and transmit information ( 1997 ) While most of the brains neurons are present at birth , they are not fully mature . During the next several years dendrites , or branching extensions that collect information from other neurons , will undergo a period of exuberance . Because of this proliferation of dendrites , by age two a single neuron might have thousands of dendrites . or the formation of connections between neurons , continues from the prenatal period forming thousands of new connections during infancy and . This period of rapid neural growth is referred to as synaptic blooming . The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of synaptic pruning , where neural Language Cognition 125
connections are reduced thereby making those that are used much stronger . It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more , allowing for mastery of more complex skills ( 2011 ) Experience will shape which of these connections are maintained and which of these are lost . Ultimately , about 40 percent of these connections will be lost ( Webb , Monk , and Nelson , 2001 ) Blooming occurs during the few years of life , and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain . Another major change occurring in the central nervous system is the development of myelin , a coating of fatty tissues around the axon of the neuron ( 2014 ) Myelin helps insulate the nerve cell and speed the rate of transmission of impulses from one cell to another . This enhances the building of neural pathways and improves coordination and control of movement and thought processes . The development of myelin continues into adolescence but is most dramatic during the several years of life . The infant brain grows very fast . At birth the brain is about 250 grams ( half a pound ) and by one year it is already 750 grams ( Eliot , 1999 ) Comparing to adult size , the newborn brain is approximately 33 of adult size at birth , and in just 90 days , it is already at 55 of adult size ( Holland et , 2014 ) Most of the neural activity is occurring in the cortex or the thin outer covering of the brain involved in voluntary activity and thinking . The cortex is divided into two hemispheres , and each hemisphere is divided into four lobes , each separated by folds known as . If we look at the cortex starting at the front of the brain and moving over the top ( see Figure ) we see the frontal lobe ( behind the forehead ) which is responsible primarily for thinking , planning , memory , and judgment . Following the frontal lobe is the parietal lobe , which extends from the middle to the back of the skull and which is responsible primarily for processing information about touch . Next is the occipital lobe , at the very back of the skull , which processes visual information . Finally , in front of the occipital lobe , between the ears , is the temporal lobe , which is responsible for hearing and language ( 2015 ) Although the brain grows rapidly during infancy , brain regions do not mature at the same rate . Primary motor areas develop earlier than primary sensory areas , and the prefrontal cortex , that is located behind the forehead , is the least developed ( 2015 ) As the prefrontal cortex matures , the child is increasingly able to regulate or control emotions , to plan activities , strategize , and have better judgment . This is not fully accomplished in infancy and , but continues throughout childhood , adolescence and into adulthood . Lateralization is the process in which different functions become localized primarily on one side of the brain . For example , in most adults the left hemisphere is more active than the right during language production , while the reverse pattern is observed during tasks involving abilities ( Springer , 1993 ) This process develops over time , however , structural between the hemispheres have been reported even in fetuses ( Chi , Gilles , 1997 et , 2011 ) and infants ( et , 2009 ) Lastly , refers to the brains ability to change , both physically and chemically , to enhance its adaptability to environmental change and compensate for injury . The control of some bodily functions , such as movement , vision , and hearing , is performed in areas of the cortex , and if these areas are damaged , the individual will likely lose the ability to perform the corresponding function . The brains neurons have a remarkable capacity to reorganize and extend themselves to carry out these particular functions in response to the needs of the organism , and to repair any damage . As a result , the brain constantly creates new neural communication routes and existing ones . Both environmental experiences , such as stimulation and events within a person body , such as hormones and genes , affect the 126 Language Cognition
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is licensed under a ( Creative Commons Zero license Face is licensed under a ( Attribution ) license assimilation Lally . is licensed under a ( Attribution NonCommercial license Tai Captures is licensed under a ( Creative Commons Zero ) license Lally is licensed under a ( Attribution NonCommercial ) license is licensed under a Public Domain license is licensed under a ( Attribution license Lally is licensed under a ( Attribution NonCommercial ) license Unknown is licensed under a Public Domain license Skinner at Harvard circa 1950 Silly rabbit is licensed under a BY Attribution license Psychologist Albert is licensed under a ( Attribution license Language Cognition 131