Human Behavior and the Social Environment II Part II Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation, Sexuality, & Pornography

Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography Define terms related to sexuality and sexual expression . Discuss different theories and models for sexual orientation . Explain the impact of history on the population . Discuss current treatment concerns for the population . Explain the impact of socialization and culture on sexuality . Define the meaning of pornography . Explore the disconnect between the consumption of pornography in the and public attitudes about pornography in the Discuss the impact of pornography replacing comprehensive sex education . What is Sex , Gender , Sexuality , Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 351

Sexual Orientation ?

Sex and Gender Each of us is born with physical characteristics that represent and socially assign our sex and gender . Sex refers to our biological differences and gender the cultural traits assigned to females and males ( and 2012 ) Our physical distinguishes our sex as either female or male implicating the gender socialization process we will experience throughout our life associated with becoming a woman or man . Gender identity is an individuals of being female or male and their association with feminine and masculine qualities . People teach gender traits based on sex or biological composition ( and 2012 ) Our sex signifies the gender roles ( psychological , social , and cultural ) we will learn and experience as a member of society . Children learn gender roles and acts of sexism in society through socialization ( et al . 2015 ) Girls learn feminine qualities and characteristics and boys masculine ones forming gender identity . Children become aware of gender roles between the ages of two and three and by four to five years old , they are fulfilling gender roles based on their sex ( et al . 2015 ) Nonetheless , characteristics do not always match one self or cultural identity as people grow and develop . Gender stratification focuses on the unequal access females have to socially valued resources , power , prestige , and personal freedom as compared to men based on different positions within the cultural hierarchy ( Light , Keller , and 1997 ) Traditionally , society treats women as citizens in society . The design of dominant gender ideologies and inequality maintains the prevailing social structure , presenting male privilege as part of the 352 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

natural order ( 2006 ) Theorists suggest society is dominated patriarchy where men think of themselves as inherently superior to women resulting in an unequal distribution of rewards between men and women ( 2011 ) Media portrays women and men in stereotypical ways that reflect and sustain socially endorsed views of gender ( Wood 1994 ) Media affects the perception of social norms including gender . People think and act according to stereotypes associated with one gender broadcast by media ( 2016 ) Media stereotypes reinforce the gender inequality of girls and women . According to Wood ( 1994 ) the underrepresentation of women in media implies that men are the cultural standard , and women are unimportant or invisible . Stereotypes of men in media display them as independent , driven , skillful , and heroic lending them to positions and power in society . In countries throughout the world , including the United States , women face discrimination in wages , occupational training , and job promotion ( 2006 ) As a result , society tracks girls and women into career pathways that align with gender roles and match aspirations such as teaching , nursing , and human services ( 2011 ) Society views men work as having a higher value than that of women . Even if women have the same job as men , they make 77 cents per every dollar in comparison ( et al . 2015 ) Inequality in career pathways , job placement , and promotion or advancement results in an income gap between genders affecting the buying power and economic vitality of women in comparison to men . The United Nations found prejudice and violence against women are firmly rooted in cultures around the world ( 2006 ) Gender inequality has allowed men to harness and abuse their social power . The leading cause of injury among women of reproductive age is domestic violence , and rape is an everyday occurrence and seen as a male prerogative throughout many parts of the world ( 2006 ) Depictions in the media emphasize roles and normalize violence against women ( Wood 1994 ) Culture Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 353

plays an integral role in establishing and maintaining male dominance in society ascribing men the power and privilege that reinforces subordination and oppression of women . research shows gender stratification decreases when women and men make equal contributions to human subsistence or survival ( 1974 ) Since the industrial revolution , attitudes about gender and work have been evolving with the need for women and men to contribute to the labor force and economy . work , attitudes , and beliefs have transformed in responses to American economic needs ( 1984 , 2000 ) Today society is encouraging gender flexibility resulting from cultural shifts among women seeking college degrees , prioritizing career , and delaying marriage and childbirth . Sexuality and Sexual Orientation Sexuality is an inborn person capacity for sexual feelings ( et al . 2015 ) Normative standards about sexuality are different throughout the world . Cultural codes prescribe sexual behaviors as legal , normal , deviant , or pathological ( and 2012 ) In the United States , people have restrictive attitudes about premarital sex , extramarital sex , and homosexuality compared to other industrialized nations ( et al . 2015 ) The debate on sex education in US schools focuses on abstinence and contraceptive curricula . In addition , people in the US . have restrictive attitudes about women and sex , believing men have more urges and therefore it is more acceptable for them to have multiple sexual partners than women setting a double standard . Sexual orientation is a biological expression of sexual desire or attraction ( and 2012 ) Culture sets the parameters 354 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

for sexual norms and habits . dictates and controls social acceptance of sexual expression and activity . Eroticism like all human activities and preferences is learned and malleable ( and 2012 ) Sexual orientation labels categorize personal views and representations of sexual desire and activities . Most people ascribe and conform to the sexual labels constructed and assigned by society ( heterosexual or desire for the opposite sex , homosexual or attraction to the same sex , bisexual or appeal to both sexes , and asexual or lack of sexual attraction and indifference ) The projection of ones sexual personality is often through gender identity . Most people align their sexual disposition with what is socially or appropriate ( and 2012 ) Because sexual desire or attraction is inborn , people within the dominant group ( heterosexual ) often believe their preference is However , heterosexual fit or type is not normal . History has documented diversity in sexual preference behavior since the dawn of human existence ( and 2012 ) There are diversity and variance in people libido psychosocial relationship needs . Additionally , sexual activity or fantasy does not always align with sexual orientation ( 2012 ) Sexual pleasure from the use of sexual toys , homoerotic images , or kinky fetishes does not necessarily correspond to a specific orientation , sexual label , or mean someone desire will alter or convert to another type because the activity . Regardless , society uses sexual identity as an indicator of status dismissing the fact that sexuality is a learned behavior , flexible , and contextual ( and 2012 ) People feel display sexual variety , erotic impulses , and sensual expressions throughout their lives . Individuals develop sexual understanding around middle childhood and adolescence ( APA 2008 ) There is no genetic , biological , developmental , social , or cultural evidence linked to homosexual behavior . The difference is in society discriminatory response to homosexuality . Alfred was the first to identify sexuality is a continuum rather than a dichotomy of gay or straight Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography ) 355

( et al . 2015 ) His research showed people do not necessarily fall into the sexual categories , behaviors , and constructed by society . Eve ( 1990 ) expanded on research to find women are more likely to express relationships such as hugging , handholding , and physical closeness . Whereas , men often face negative sanctions for displaying behavior . Society meaning to sexual activities ( and 2012 ) Variance reflects the cultural norms and sociopolitical conditions of a time and place . Since the , organized efforts by ( Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , Transgender , and Questioning ) activists have helped establish a gay culture and civil rights ( 1992 ) Gay culture provides social acceptance for persons rejected , marginalized , and punished by others because of sexual orientation and expression . Queer theorists are reclaiming the derogatory label to help in broadening the understanding of sexuality as flexible and fluid ( et al . 2015 ) Sexual culture is not necessarily subject to sexual desire and activity , but rather dominant affinity groups linked by common interests or purpose to restrict and control sexual behavior . Sexual Orientation and Inequality Social Problems in the News Miami Beach to Fire Two Officers in Gay Beating at Park , the headline said . City officials in Miami Beach , Florida , announced that the city would fire two police 356 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

officers accused of beating a gay man two years earlier and kicking and arresting a gay tourist who came to the defense . The tourist said he called 911 when he saw two officers , who were working undercover , beating the man and kicking his head . According to his account , the officers then shouted slurs at him , kicked him , and arrested him on false charges . The president of Miami Beach Gay Pride welcomed the news of the impending firing . It sets a precedent that you cant discriminate against anyone and get away with it , he said . The two officers tried to cover it up and arrested the guy . It an abuse of power . Kudos to the city . They taken it Source Smiley . 2011 From 1933 to 1945 , Adolf Hitler Nazi regime exterminated million Jews in the Holocaust , but it also persecuted millions of other people , including gay men . Nazi officials alleged that these men harbored what they termed a degeneracy that threatened Germany disciplined masculinity . Calling gay men antisocial parasites and enemies of the state , the Nazi government arrested more than men for violating a law against homosexuality , although it did not arrest lesbians because it valued their bearing capacity . At least gay men were imprisoned , and many more were put in mental institutions . Several hundred other gay men were castrated , and up to were placed in concentration camps , where most died from disease , starvation , or murder . As the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum ( 2011 ) summarizes these events , Nazi Germany did not seek to kill all homosexuals . Nevertheless , the Nazi state , through active persecution , attempted to terrorize German homosexuals into sexual and social conformity , leaving thousands dead and shattering the lives of many more . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 357

This terrible history reminds us that sexual orientation has often resulted in inequality of many kinds , and , in the extreme case of the Nazis , the inhumane treatment that included castration , imprisonment , and death . The news story that began this chapter makes clear that sexual orientation still results in violence , even if this violence falls short of what the Nazis did . Although the gay rights movement has achieved much success , sexual orientation continues to result in other types of inequality as well . This chapter examines the many forms of inequality linked to sexual orientation today . It begins with a conceptual discussion of sexual orientation before turning to its history , explanation , types of inequality , and other matters . References Smiley , 2011 , July 25 ) Miami Beach to fire two officers in gay beating at park . The Miami Herald . Retrieved from a 2011 07 . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . 2011 ) Nazi persecution of homosexuals . Retrieved August 14 , 2011 , from museum exhibit online . 358 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

Understanding Sexual Orientation Define sexual orientation and gender identity . Describe what percentage of the population is estimated to be . Summarize the history of sexual orientation . Evaluate the possible reasons for sexual orientation . Sexual orientation refers to a persons preference for sexual relationships with individuals of the other sex ( heterosexuality ) one own sex ( homosexuality ) or both sexes ( bisexuality ) The term also increasingly refers to transgender ( also transgendered ) individuals , those whose behavior , appearance , gender identity ( the personal conception of oneself as female , male , both , or neither ) departs from conventional norms . Transgendered individuals include transvestites ( those who dress in the clothing of the opposite sex ) and transsexuals ( those whose gender identity differs from their physiological sex and who sometimes undergo a sex change ) woman is a person who was born biologically as a male and becomes a woman , while a man is a person who was born biologically as a woman and becomes a man . As you almost certainly know , gay is the common term now Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 359

used for any homosexual individual gay men or guys is the common term used for homosexual men , while lesbian is the common term used for homosexual women . All the types of social orientation just outlined are often collectively referred to by the shorthand ( As you almost certainly also know , the term straight is used today as a synonym for heterosexual . Counting Sexual Orientation We will probably never know precisely how many people are gay , lesbian , bisexual , or transgendered . One problem is conceptual . For example , what does it mean to be gay or lesbian ?

Does one need to actually have sexual relations with a partner to be considered gay ?

What if someone is attracted to partners but does not actually engage in sex with such persons ?

What if someone identifies as heterosexual but engages in homosexual sex for money ( as in certain forms of prostitution ) or for power and influence ( as in much prison sex ) These conceptual problems make it difficult to determine the extent of homosexuality ( Gates , 2011 ) 360 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

It is difficult for several reasons to know exactly how many people are . Photo Above A gay couple watching a parade . A second problem is empirical . Even if we can settle on a definition of homosexuality , how do we then determine how many people fit this definition ?

For better or worse , our best evidence of the number of gays and lesbians in the United States comes from surveys that ask random samples of Americans various questions about their sexuality . Although these are anonymous surveys , some individuals may be reluctant to disclose their sexual activity and thoughts to an interviewer . Still , scholars think that estimates from these surveys are fairly accurate but also that they probably underestimate by at least a small amount the number of gays and lesbians . During the and , sex researcher Alfred carried out the first notable attempt to estimate the number of gays and lesbians ( Martin , 1948 , Martin , 1953 ) His project interviewed more than Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 361

white women and men about their sexual experiences , thoughts , and attractions , with each subject answering hundreds of questions . While most individuals had experiences and feelings that were exclusively heterosexual , a significant number had experiences and feelings that were either exclusively homosexual or both heterosexual and homosexual in varying degrees . These findings led to reject the popular idea back then that a person is necessarily either heterosexual or homosexual ( or straight or gay , to use the common modern terms ) As he wrote , It is a characteristic of the human mind that tries to dichotomize in its classification of phenomena Sexual behavior is either normal or abnormal , socially acceptable or unacceptable , heterosexual or homosexual and many persons do not want to believe that there are in these matters from one to the other extreme ( et , 1953 , 469 ) Perhaps most significant and controversial finding was that did , in fact , exist between being exclusively heterosexual on the one hand and exclusively homosexual on the other hand . To reflect these , he developed the Scale , which ranks individuals on a continuum ranging from ( exclusively heterosexual ) to ( exclusively homosexual ) In terms of specific numbers , found that ( a ) 37 percent of males and 13 percent of females had had at least one sex experience ( 10 percent of males had mostly homosexual experiences between the ages of 16 and 55 , while up to percent of females had mostly homosexual experiences between the ages of 20 and 35 ( percent of males were exclusively homosexual after adolescence began , compared to percent of females and ( 46 percent of males either had engaged in both heterosexual and homosexual experiences or had been attracted to persons of both sexes , compared to 14 percent of females . 362 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

An estimated percent of the US adult population identifies as . This figure amounts to about million people . Photo above Nathan Rupert Crazy fun lesbian couple . More recent research updates early findings and , more importantly , uses nationally representative samples of Americans ( which did not use ) In general , this research suggests that overstated the numbers of Americans who have had sex experiences attractions . A widely cited survey carried out in the early by researchers at the University of Chicago found that percent of men and percent of women identified as or bisexual , with greater percentages reporting having had sexual relations with partners or Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 363

being attracted to persons ( see Table 51 Prevalence of Homosexuality in the United States ) In the 2010 General Social Survey ( percent of men and percent of women identified as or bisexual . In the National Survey of Family Growth ( conducted by the federal government ( Chandra , Copen , 2011 ) percent of men as gay or bisexual , compared to percent of women ( ages for both sexes ) Table Prevalence of Homosexuality in the United States Men Women Activity , attraction , or identity ( 96 ) 96 ) Find sexual relations appealing Attracted to people of Identify as gay or bisexual At least one sex partner of during the past 27 13 year among those sexually active At least one sex partner of since turning 18 Source Data from , Michael , Michaels , 1994 ) The social organization of sexuality . Chicago , IL University of Chicago Press . These are all a lot of numbers , but demographer Gary . Gates ( 2011 ) drew on the most recent national survey evidence to come up with the following estimates for adults 18 and older percent of Americans identify as gay , lesbian , or bisexual , and percent are transgender these figures add up to percent of Americans , or million people , who are . percent of women and percent of men identify as . percent of women identify as bisexual , and percent identify as a lesbian percent of men identify as bisexual , and percent identify as gay . women are thus twice as likely as men to identify as bisexual . 364 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

82 percent of Americans , or 19 million people , have engaged in sexual behavior , with women twice as likely as men to have done so . 11 percent of Americans , or million people , report having some sexual attraction , with women twice as likely as men to report such attraction . The overall picture from these estimates is clear people comprise only a small percentage of the US population , but they amount to about million adults and undoubtedly a significant number of adolescents . In addition , the total number of people who , regardless of their sexual orientation , have had a experience is probably at least 19 million , and the number who have had attraction is probably at least 25 million . Sexual Orientation in Historical Perspective Based on what is known about homosexuality in past societies , it should be no surprise that so many people in the United States identify as or have had experiences . This historical record is clear Homosexuality has existed since ancient times and in some societies has been rather common or at least fully accepted as a normal form of sexual expression . In the great city of Athens in ancient Greece , male homosexuality ( to be more precise , sexual relations between a man and a teenaged boy and , less often , between a man and a man ) was not only approved but even encouraged . According to classical scholar Dover ( 1989 , 12 ) Athenian society certainly regarded strong homosexual desire and emotion as normal , in part because it also generally entertained a low opinion of the intellectual capacity Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 365

and of women . Louis ( 2003 , who wrote perhaps the definitive history of homosexuality , agrees that male homosexuality in ancient Greece was common and notes that in Greek history and literature the abundance of accounts of homosexual love overwhelms the He adds , Greek lyric poets sing of male love from almost the earliest fragments down to the end of classical times portray scores of homoerotic scenes , hundreds of inscriptions celebrate the love of boys , and such affairs enter into the lives of a long catalog of famous Greek statesmen , warriors , artists , and authors . Though it has often been assumed that the love of males was a fashion confined to a small intellectual elite during the age of Plato , in fact , it was pervasive throughout all levels of Greek society and held an honored place in Greek culture for more than a thousand years , that is , from before 600 . to about 400 CE Male homosexuality in ancient Rome was also common and accepted as normal sexuality , but it took a different form from than in ancient Greece . Ancient Romans disapproved of sexual relations between a man and a freeborn male youth , but they approved of relations between a slave master and his youthful male slave . Sexual activity of this type was common . As ( 2003 , 80 ) wryly notes , Opportunities were ample for Roman masters because slaves comprised about 40 percent of the population of ancient Rome . However , these opportunities are best regarded as violent domination by slave masters over their slaves . By the time Rome fell in 476 CE , Europe had become a Christian continent . Influenced by several passages in the Bible that condemn homosexuality , Europeans considered homosexuality a sin , and their governments outlawed relations . If discovered , male homosexuals ( or any men suspected of homosexuality ) were vulnerable to execution for the next fourteen centuries , and many did lose their lives . During the Middle Ages , gay men and lesbians were stoned , burned at the stake , hanged , or beheaded , and 366 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

otherwise abused and mistreated . 2003 , 539 ) calls these atrocities a routine of terror and a kaleidoscope of horrors . Hitler persecution of gay men several centuries after the Middle Ages ended had ample precedent in European history . In contrast to the European treatment of gay men and lesbians , China and Japan from ancient times onward viewed homosexuality much more positively in what ( 2003 , 215 ) calls an unselfconscious acceptance of He adds that male love in Japan during the was a national the Japanese thought natural and meritorious ( 2003 , 412 ) and very much part of the samurai ( military nobility ) culture of preindustrial Japan . In China , both male and female homosexuality was seen as normal and even healthy sexual outlets . Because , the major Chinese religion when the Common Era began , considered women inferior , it considered male friendships very important and thus may have unwittingly promoted relations among men . Various artistic and written records indicate that male homosexuality was fairly common in China over the centuries , although the exact numbers can never be known . When China began trading and otherwise communicating with Europe during the Ming dynasty , its tolerance for homosexuality shocked and disgusted Catholic missionaries and other Europeans . Some European clergy and scientists even blamed earthquakes and other natural disasters in China on this tolerance . In addition to this body of work by historians , anthropologists have also studied relations in small , traditional societies . In many of these societies , homosexuality is both common and accepted as normal sexual behavior . In one overview of six societies , the authors found that almost regarded homosexuality as normal and socially acceptable for certain members of the community ( Ford Beach , 1951 , 130 ) Among the of East Africa , for example , young warriors live with each other and are not allowed to marry . During this time , they often have sex with younger boys . Among the of New Guinea , young males live separately from females and have Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 367

relations for at least a decade . It is felt that the boys would be less masculine if they continued to live with their mothers and that the semen of older males helps young boys become strong and fierce ( 1976 ) This brief historical and anthropological overview provides ready evidence of what was said at its outset Homosexuality has existed since ancient times and in some societies has been rather common or at least fully accepted as a normal form of sexual expression . Although Western society , influenced by the tradition , has largely condemned homosexuality since Western civilization began some years ago , the great civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient China and Japan until the industrial age approved of homosexuality . In these civilizations , male homosexuality was fairly common , and female homosexuality was far from unknown . relations are also fairly common in many of the societies that anthropologists have studied . Although Western societies have long considered homosexuality sinful and unnatural and more generally have viewed it very negatively , the historical and anthropological record demonstrates that relationships are far from rare . They thus must objectively be regarded as normal expressions of sexuality . In fact , some of the most famous individuals in Western political , literary , and artistic history certainly or probably engaged in sex relations , either sometimes or exclusively Alexander the Great , Hans Christian , Marie Antoinette , Aristotle , Sir Francis Bacon , James Baldwin , Leonard , Lord Byron , Julius Caesar , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Frederick the Great , Leonardo de Vinci , Herman , Michelangelo , Plato , Cole Porter , Richard the Lionhearted , Eleanor Roosevelt , Socrates , Gertrude Stein , Tchaikovsky , Henry David , Walt Whitman , Tennessee Williams , Oscar Wilde , and Virginia , to name just a few . Regardless or perhaps in some cases because of their sexuality , they all made great contributions to the societies in which they lived . 368 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

Explaining Sexual Orientation We have seen that it is difficult to determine the number of people who are or bisexual . It is even more difficult to determine why some people have these sexual while most do not , and scholars disagree on the causes of sexual orientation ( Gallagher , Curtis , 2006 Sheldon , Petty , 2007 ) Determining the origins of sexual orientation is not just an academic exercise . When people believe that the roots of homosexuality are biological or that gays otherwise do not choose to be gay , they are more likely to have positive or at least tolerant views of behavior . When they believe that homosexuality is instead merely a personal choice , they are more likely to disapprove of it ( Sheldon et , 2007 ) For this reason , if for no other , it is important to know why some people are gay or bisexual while most are not . Studies of the origins of sexual orientation focus mostly on biological factors and on social and cultural factors , and a healthy scholarly debate exists on the relative importance of these two sets of factors . Biological Factors Research points to certain genetic and other biological roots of sexual orientation but is by no means conclusive . One line of research concerns genetics . Although no gay gene has been discovered , studies of identical twins find they are more likely to have the same sexual orientation ( gay or straight ) than would be expected from chance alone ( Thornton , Kessler , 2000 et , 2008 ) Because identical twins have the same Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 369

DNA , this similarity suggests but does not prove , a genetic basis for sexual orientation . Keep in mind , however , that any physical or behavioral trait that is totally due to genetics should show up in both twins or in neither twin . Because many identical twins do not have the same sexual orientation , this dissimilarity suggests that genetics are far from the only cause of sexual orientation , to the extent they cause it at all . Several methodological problems also cast doubt on findings from many of these twin studies . A recent review concluded that the case for a genetic cause of sexual orientation is far from proven Findings from genetic studies of homosexuality in humans have been at worst and tantalizing at no clear , strong , compelling , Despite scholarly speculation , sexual orientation does not appear to be affected by the level of prenatal hormones . The photo above ho pregnant . Another line of research concerns brain anatomy , as some studies find differences in the size and structure of the hypothalamus , which controls many bodily functions , in the brains of gays versus the brains of straights ( Allen , 1992 ) However , other studies 370 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

find no such differences ( Jordan , Edgar , 2002 ) Complicating matters further , because sexual behavior can affect the hypothalamus ( 1997 ) it is difficult to determine whether any differences that might be found reflect the influence of the hypothalamus on sexual orientation , or instead of the influence of sexual orientation on the hypothalamus ( Sheldon et , 2007 ) The third line of biological research concerns hormonal balance in the womb , with scientists speculating that the level of prenatal androgen effects in which sexual orientation develops . Because prenatal androgen levels can not be measured , studies typically measure it only indirectly in the bodies of gays and straights by comparing the lengths of certain fingers and bones that are thought to be related to prenatal androgen . Some of these studies suggest that gay men had lower levels of prenatal androgen than straight men and that lesbians had higher levels of prenatal androgen than straight women , but other studies find no evidence of this connection ( Martin , 2004 , Chivers , Bailey , 2002 ) A recent review concluded that the results of the hormone studies are often inconsistent and that the notion that heterosexual preferences may reflect deviations from normal prenatal hormonal levels is not supported by the available data ( 2005 , 1057 ) Social and Cultural Factors Sociologists usually emphasize the importance of socialization over biology for the learning of many forms of human behavior . In this view , humans are born with blank slates and thereafter shaped by their society and culture , and children are shaped by their parents , teachers , peers , and other aspects of their immediate social environment while they are growing up . Given this standard sociological position , one might think that Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 371

sociologists generally believe that people are gay or straight not because of their biology but because they learn to be gay or straight from their society , culture , and immediate social environment . This , in fact , was a common belief of sociologists about a generation ago ( et , 2006 ) In a 1988 review article , two sociologists concluded that evidence that homosexuality is a social construction learned from society and culture is far more powerful than the evidence for a widespread organic biological predisposition toward homosexual desire ( Schwartz , 1988 , 143 ) The most popular introductory sociology text of the era similarly declared , Many people , including some homosexuals , believe that gays and lesbians are simply born that But since we know that even heterosexuals are not born that way , this explanation seems unlikely , like any other sexual behavior ranging from oral sex to sadomasochism to the pursuit of brunettes , is learned ( Robertson , 1987 , 243 ) However , sociologists views of the origins of sexual orientation have apparently changed since these passages were written . In a recent national survey of a random sample of sociologists , 22 percent said male homosexuality results from biological factors , 38 percent said it results from both biological and environmental ( learning ) factors , and 39 percent said it results from environmental factors ( et , 2006 ) Thus 60 percent ( 22 38 ) thought that biology totally or partly explains male homosexuality , almost certainly a much higher figure than would have been found a generation ago had a similar survey been done . In this regard , it is important to note that 77 percent ( 38 39 ) of the sociologists still feel that environmental factors , or socialization , matter as well . Scholars who hold this view believe that sexual orientation is partly or totally learned from one society , culture , and immediate social environment . In this way of thinking , we learn messages from all these influences about whether it is OK or not OK to be sexually attracted to someone from our own sex or to someone from the opposite sex . If we grow up with positive messages about attraction , we are more likely to acquire 372 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

this attraction . If we grow up with negative messages about sex attraction , we are less likely to acquire it and more likely to have a heterosexual desire . It is difficult to do the necessary type of research to test whether socialization matters in this way , but the historical and cultural evidence discussed earlier provides at least some support for this process . Homosexuality was generally accepted in ancient Greece , ancient China , and ancient Japan , and it also seemed rather common in those societies . The same connection holds true in many of the societies that anthropologists have studied . In contrast , homosexuality was condemned in Europe from the very early part of the first millennium CE , and it seems to have been rather rare ( although it is very possible that many gays hid their sexual orientation for fear of persecution and death ) So where does this leave us ?

What are the origins of sexual orientation ?

The most honest answer is that we do not yet know its origins . As we have seen , many scholars attribute sexual orientation to still unknown biological factor ( over which individuals have no control , just as individuals do not decide whether they are handed or . Supporting this view , many gays say they realized they were gay during adolescence , just as straights would say they realized they were straight during their own adolescence moreover , evidence ( from toy , play , and clothing preferences ) of future sexual orientation even appears during childhood ( Bailey , 2008 ) Other scholars say that sexual orientation is at least partly influenced by cultural norms so that individuals are more likely to identify as gay or straight and be attracted to their or depending on the cultural views of sexual orientation into which they are socialized as they grow up . At best , perhaps all we can say is that sexual orientation stems from a complex mix of biological and cultural factors that remain to be determined . The official stance of the American Psychological Association ( APA ) is in line with this view . According to the APA , There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 373

individual develops a heterosexual , bisexual , gay , or lesbian orientation . Although much research has examined the possible genetic , hormonal , developmental , social , and cultural on sexual orientation , no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or factors . Many think that nature and nurture both play complex roles most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation ( American Psychological Association , 2008 , Although the exact origins of sexual orientation remain unknown , the APA last statement is perhaps the most important conclusion from research on this issue Most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation . Because . as mentioned earlier , people are more likely to approve of or tolerate homosexuality when they believe it is not a choice , efforts to educate the public about this research conclusion should help the public become more accepting of behavior and individuals . An estimated percent , or million , Americans identify as . Homosexuality seems to have been fairly common and very much accepted in some ancient societies as well as in many societies studied by anthropologists . Scholars continue to debate the extent to which sexual orientation stems more from biological factors or from social and cultural factors and the extent to which sexual orientation is a choice or not a choice . 374 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

. Do you think sexual orientation is a choice , or not ?

Explain your answer . Write an essay that describes how your middle school and high school friends talked about sexual orientation generally and homosexuality specifically . References Allen , A . 1992 ) Sexual orientation and the size of the anterior commissure in the human brain . 89 , American Psychological Association . 2008 ) Answers to your questions For a better understanding of sexual orientation and homosexuality . Washington , Author . 1997 ) Sex on the brain . Nature , 389 , 801 . Chandra , Copen , 2011 ) Sexual behavior , sexual attraction , and sexual identity in the United States Data from the national survey of family growth ( National Health Statistics Reports Number 36 ) National Center for Health Statistics . Retrieved from data . 2003 ) Homosexuality and civilization . Cambridge , MA Press . Dover , 1989 ) Greek homosexuality . Cambridge , MA Harvard University Press . 1976 ) Deviance A perspective . Park , CA Cummings Publishing . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 375

, Gallagher , Ill , Curtis , 2006 ) The attitudes of American sociologists toward causal theories of male homosexuality . The American Sociologist , 37 ( Ford , Beach , A . 1951 ) Patterns of sexual behavior . New York Harper and Row . Gates , 2011 ) How many people are lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ?

Los Angeles , CA Williams Institute . Thornton , Kessler , 2000 ) Sexual orientation in a US national sample of twin and sibling pairs . American Journal of Psychiatry , 157 , Martin , 1948 ) Sexual behavior in the human male . Philadelphia , PA Saunders . Martin , 1953 ) Sexual behavior in the human female . Philadelphia , PA Saunders . Jordan , Edgar , 2002 ) A lack of of sex or sexual orientation in the human anterior commissure . Brain Research , 986 , Martin , 2004 ) Anthropometric analysis of homosexuals and heterosexuals Implications for early hormone exposure . Hormones and Behavior , 45 , Chivers , Bailey , 2002 ) A critical review of recent biological research on human sexual orientation . Annual Review of Sex Research , 13 , 2005 ) The of human sexual orientation . Neuroscience Review , 29 ( Bailey , 2008 ) Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity Evidence from home videos . Developmental Psychology , 44 ( Schwartz , 1988 ) Sociological research on male and female homosexuality . Annual Review of Sociology , 14 , Robertson , 1987 ) Sociology . New York , NY Worth . 376 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

, 2008 ) Potential for homosexual response is prevalent and genetic . Biological Psychology , 77 , Sheldon , Petty , 2007 ) Beliefs about the etiology of homosexuality and about the ramifications of discovering its possible genetic origin . Journal of Homosexuality , 52 ( Public Attitudes About Sexual Orientation Understand the extent and correlates of . Understand the nature of public opinion on other issues related to sexual orientation . Describe how views about issues have changed since a few decades ago . As noted earlier , views about gays and lesbians have certainly been very negative over the centuries in the areas of the world , such as Europe and the Americas , that mostly follow the tradition . There is no question that the Bible condemns Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 377

homosexuality , with perhaps the most quoted Biblical passages in this regard found in Do not lie with a man as one lies with a woman that is detestable ( If a man lies with a man as one lies with a woman , both of them have done what is detestable . They must be put to death their blood will be on their own heads ( In er . The Bible contains several passages that appear to condemn homosexuality . Sean Bible BY 20 . 378 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

The important question , though , is to what extent these passages should be interpreted literally . Certainly very few people today believe that male homosexuals should be executed , despite what declares . Still , many people who condemn homosexuality cite passages like and as reasons for their negative views . This is not a theology text , but it is appropriate to mention briefly two points that many religious scholars make about what the Bible says about homosexuality ( 2000 Via , 2003 ) First , English translations of the Bible passages may distort their original meanings , and various contextual studies of the Bible suggest that these passages did not , in fact , make blanket about homosexuality . Second , and perhaps more important , most people pick and choose what they decide to believe from the Bible and what they decide not to believe . Although the Bible is a great source of inspiration for many people , most individuals are inconsistent when it comes to choosing which Biblical beliefs to believe and about which beliefs not to believe . For example , if someone chooses to disapprove of homosexuality because the Bible condemns it , why does this person not also choose to believe that gay men should be executed , which is precisely what dictates ?

Further , the Bible calls for many practices and specifies many penalties that even very devout people do not follow or believe . For example , most people except for devout Jews do not keep kosher , even though the Bible says that everyone should do this , and most people certainly do not believe people who commit adultery , engage in premarital sex or work on the Sabbath should be executed , even though the Bible says that such people should be executed . Citing the inconsistency with which most people follow Biblical commands , many religious scholars say it is inappropriate to base public views about homosexuality on what the Bible says about it . We now turn our attention to social science evidence on views about behavior and individuals . We first look at negative attitudes and then discuss a few other views . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 379

The Extent in the United States We saw in earlier chapters that racism refers to negative views about , and practices toward , people of color , and that sexism refers to negative views about , and practices toward , women . is the analogous term for negative views about , and discriminatory practices toward , individuals and their sexual behavior . There are many types of negative views about and thus many ways to measure . The General Social Survey ( given regularly to a national sample of US residents , asks whether respondents think that sexual relations between two adults of the same sex are always wrong , almost always wrong , sometimes wrong , or not wrong at all . In 2010 , almost 46 percent of respondents said relations are always wrong , and 43 percent responded they are not wrong at all ( see Figure Opinion about Sexual Relations between Two Adults of the Same Sex 2010 ) Figure Opinion about Sexual Relations between Two Adults of the Same Sex , 2010 I I Almost Always Wrong Dam from General I social I Survey . 2010 ) Retrieved from ?

380 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography As another way of measuring , the poll asks whether gay or lesbian relations are morally acceptable or morally wrong ( 2011 ) In 2011 , 56 percent of respondents answered morally acceptable , while 39 percent replied morally Although Figure Opinion about Sexual Relations between Two Adults of the Same Sex 2010 shows that percent of Americans ( think that relations are at least sometimes wrong , public views regarding have notably become more positive over the past few decades . We can see evidence of this trend in Figure Changes in Opinion about Sexual Relations between Two Adults of the Same Sex , which shows that the percentage of respondents who say relations are always wrong has dropped considerably since the first asked this question in 1973 , while the percentage who respond not wrong at all has risen considerably , with both these changes occurring since the early 19903 . Figure Changes in Opinion about Sexual Relations between Two Adults of the Same Sex , so ! if Source Data . from General , Social do ' Surveys . so , Retrieved , Trends in data confirm that public views regarding Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 381

homosexuality have become more positive in recent times . Recall that 56 percent of respondents in 2011 called relations morally acceptable , while 39 percent replied morally wrong . Ten years earlier , these percentages were 40 percent and 53 percent , respectively , representing a marked shift in public opinion in just a decade . Correlates of Scholars have investigated the factors that predict attitudes . Reflecting on the sociological axiom that our social backgrounds influence our attitudes and behavior , several aspects of our social backgrounds influence views about gays and lesbians . Among the most influential of these factors are gender , age , education , the region of residence , and religion . We can illustrate each of these influences with the question on whether relations are wrong , using the response always wrong as a measure of . Gender . Men are somewhat more than women ( see part a of Figure Correlates of ( Percentage Saving That Relations Are Alwavs Wrong ) Age . Older people are considerably more than younger people ( see part of Figure Correlates of ( Percentage Saving That Relations Are Always Wrong ) Education . Less educated people are considerably more than more educated people ( see part of Figure Correlates of ( Percentage Saving That Relations Are Alwa ) Region of residence . Southerners are more than 382 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

( see part Correlates of ( Percentage That Relations Are Always Wrong ) Religion . Religious people are considerably more than less religious people ( see part of Figure Correlates of ( Percentage Saving That Relations Are Alwa ) Figure Correlates of ( Percentage Saying That Relations Are Always Wrong ) Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 383

a . Gender 60 40 30 10 Men Women Age 70 so so on an Percentage 20 ) 1849 . 70 do 50 40 an 20 Less man School 82019101 Degree High Higher 384 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 70 an 511 on Northeast West Religious mum Nut Religious Source Data from General Social Survey . 2010 ) Retrieved from ?

Because young people are especially likely to be accepting of , attitudes about issues should continue to improve as the older population passes away . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 385 The age difference in is perhaps particularly interesting . Many studies find that young younger than especially accepting of homosexuality and of sex marriage . As older people , who have more negative views , pass away , it is likely that public opinion as a whole will become more accepting of homosexuality and issues related to it . Scholars think this trend will further the legalization of marriage and the establishment of other laws and policies that will reduce the discrimination and inequality that the community experiences ( Lax , Phillips , 2010 ) Opinion on the Origins of Sexual Orientation Earlier we discussed scholarly research on the origins of sexual orientation . In this regard , it is interesting to note that the US public is rather split over the issue of whether sexual orientation is born instead the result of environmental factors , and also over the closely related issue of whether it is something people are able to choose . A 2011 poll asked , In your view , is being gay or lesbian something a person is born with , or due to factors such as upbringing and environment ?

Jones , 2011 ) Forty percent of respondents replied that sexual orientation is , while 42 percent said it stems from upbringing environment . The 40 percent figure represented a sharp increase from the 13 percent figure that obtained when it first asked this question in 1977 . A 2010 News poll , asked , Do you think being homosexual is something people choose to be , or do you think it is something they can not change ?

News , 2010 ) About 36 percent of respondents replied that homosexuality is a choice , while 51 percent said it is something that can not be changed , with the remainder saying they did not know or providing no answer . The 51 percent can not change figure represented an increase from the 386 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

43 percent figure that News obtained when it first asked this question in 1993 . Other Views The next section discusses several issues that demonstrate inequality based on sexual orientation . Because these issues are so controversial , public opinion polls have included many questions about them . We examine public views on some of these issues in this section . A first issue is marriage . The 2010 asked whether respondents agree that homosexual couples should have the right to marry one another 533 percent of respondents who expressed an opinion agreed with this statement , and percent disagreed , indicating a slight majority in favor of legalizing marriage ( 2010 ) In 2011 , an ABC Post poll asked about marriage in a slightly different way Do you think it should be legal or illegal for gay and lesbian couples to get married ?

A majority , 51 percent , of respondents , replied legal , and 45 percent replied , illegal ( Langer , 2011 ) Although only bare majorities now favor legalizing marriage , public views on this issue have become much more positive in recent years . We can see dramatic evidence of this trend in Figure 54 Changes in Opinion about Marriage ( Percentage Agreeing That Sex Couples Should Have the Right to Marry Those Expressing No Opinion Excluded from Analysis ) which shows that the percentage agreeing with the question on the right of couples to marry has risen considerably during the past . Figure Changes in Opinion about Marriage , Percentage Agreeing That Couples Should Have the Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 387

Right to Marry Those Expressing No Opinion Excluded from Analysis ) on 50 Source Data . General Social Surveys . Retrieved from da was me we . In a related topic , public opinion about couples as parents has also become more favorable in recent years . In 2007 , 50 percent of the public said that the increasing number of couples raising children was a bad thing for society . By 2011 , this figure had declined to 35 percent , a remarkable decrease in just four years ( Pew Research Center , 2011 ) A second issue that has aroused public debate involves the right of gays and lesbians to serve in the military , which we discuss further later in this chapter . A 2010 ABC Post poll asked whether gays and lesbians who do not publicly disclose their sexual orientation should be allowed to serve in the military ( 2010 ) About 83 percent of respondents replied they should be allowed , up considerably from the 63 percent figure that this poll obtained when it first asked this question in 1993 ( 2008 ) A third issue involves the right of gays and lesbians to be free from job discrimination based on their sexual orientation , as federal law does not prohibit such discrimination . A 2008 poll asked whether homosexuals should or should not have equal rights in terms of job About 89 percent of respondents replied that there should be such rights , and only percent said there 388 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

should not be such rights . The 89 percent figure represented a large increase from the 56 percent figure that obtained in 1977 when first asked this question . Two Brief Conclusions on Public Attitudes We have had limited space to discuss public views on topics , but two brief conclusions are apparent from the discussion . First , although the public remains sharply divided on various issues and much of the public remains , views about behavior and certain rights of the community have become markedly more positive in recent decades . This trend matches what we saw in earlier chapters regarding views concerning people of color and women . The United States has without question become less racist , less sexist , and less since the 19705 . Second , certain aspects of people backgrounds influence the extent to which they do , or do not , hold attitudes . This conclusion is not surprising , as sociology has long since demonstrated that social backgrounds influence many types of attitudes and behaviors , but the influence we saw earlier of factors on was striking nonetheless . These factors would no doubt also be relevant for understanding differences in views on other issues . As you think about your own views , perhaps you can recognize why you might hold these views based on your gender , age , education , and other aspects of your social background . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 389

' Views about behavior have improved markedly since a generation ago . More than half the US public now supports marriage . Males , older people , the less educated , Southerners , and the more religious exhibit higher levels of than their counterparts . Reread this section and indicate how you would have responded to every survey question discussed in the section . Drawing on the discussion of correlates of , explain how knowing about these correlates helps you understand why you hold your own views . Why do you think public opinion about behavior and issues has become more positive during the past few decades ?

References News . 2010 , June ) News poll Views of gays and lesbians . 390 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography Retrieved from poll gays lesbians . 2011 ) Gay and lesbian rights . Retrieved September , 2011 , from poll 1651 . Lax , Phillips , 2010 , August 22 ) Over time , a gay marriage groundswell . New York Times , A . 2000 ) What the Bible really says about homosexuality . Alamo Square Press . Jones , Jeffrey ( 2011 ) Support for legal gay relations hits new high . Retrieved from ) poll 147785 . Langer , Gary . 2011 ) Support for gay marriage reaches a milestone . Retrieved from ) Politics story ?

Mike . 2010 ) Support for gays in the military crosses ideological , party lines . Retrieved from Unit a ?

Pew Research Center . 2011 ) 35 of gay and lesbian couples raising children . Retrieved from databank ?

Lydia . 2008 ) Americans evenly divided on morality of homosexuality . Retrieved from 108115 . 2010 ) cumulative . Retrieved from ?

Via , 2003 ) Homosexuality and the Bible Two views . Fortress Press . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 391 Inequality Based on Sexual Orientation Understand the behavioral , psychological , and health effects of bullying and other mistreatment of the community . Evaluate the arguments for and against marriage . Provide three examples of heterosexual privilege . Until just a decade ago , individuals who engaged in consensual relations could be arrested in many states for violating called sodomy laws . The US Supreme Court , which had upheld such laws in 1986 , finally outlawed them in 2003 in Lawrence ) Texas , 539 US 558 , by a vote . The majority opinion of the court declared that individuals have a constitutional right under the Fourteenth Amendment to engage in consensual , private sexual activity . 392 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

Until the Supreme Court Lawrence . Texas ruling just decade ago , individuals who engaged in consensual relations could be arrested in many states . philippe Kiss In ( 08 ) Despite this landmark ruling , the community continues to experience many types of problems . In this regard , sexual orientation is a significant source of social inequality , just as ethnicity , gender , and social class are sources of social inequality . We examine manifestations of inequality based on sexual orientation in this section . Bullying and Violence The news story that began this chapter concerned the reported beatings of two gay men . Bullying and violence against adolescents and adults thought or known to be gay or lesbian constitute perhaps the most serious manifestation of inequality based on sexual Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 393

orientation . According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( 2011 ) hate crimes ( violence property destruction ) against gays and lesbians occurred in 2010 , although this number is very likely an underestimate because many hate crime victims do not report their victimization to the police . An estimated 25 percent of gay men have been physically or sexually assaulted because of their sexual orientation ( Egan , 2010 ) and some have been murdered . Matthew Shepard was one of these victims . was a student at the University of Wyoming in October 1998 when he was kidnapped by two young men who tortured him , tied him to a fence , and left him to die . When finding out almost a day later , he was in a coma , and he died a few days later . Shepard murder prompted headlines around the country and is credited with winning public sympathy for the problems experienced by the community ( 2001 ) Gay teenagers and straight teenagers thought to be gay are very often the targets of taunting , bullying , physical assault , and other abuse in schools and elsewhere ( 2009 ) Survey evidence indicates that 85 percent of students report being verbally harassed at school , and 40 percent report being verbally harassed 72 percent report hearing slurs frequently or often at school 61 percent feel unsafe at school , with 30 percent missing at least one day of school in the past month for fear of their safety and 17 percent are physically assaulted to the point they need medical attention ( Diaz , 2010 ) The bullying , violence , and other mistreatment experienced by gay teens have significant educational and mental health effects . The most serious consequence is a suicide , as a series of suicides by gay teens in fall 2010 reminded the nation . During that period , three male teenagers in California , Indiana , and Texas killed themselves after reportedly being victims of bullying , and a male college student also killed himself after his roommate broadcast a live video of the student making out with another male ( Talbot , 2010 ) In other effects , teens are much more likely than their straight peers to skip school to do poorly in their studies to drop out of school and to experience depression , anxiety , and low 394 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

esteem ( Mental Health America , 2011 ) These mental health problems tend to last at least into their twenties ( Russell , Ryan , Diaz , Sanchez , 2011 ) According to a 2011 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( teens are also much more likely to engage in risky unhealthy behaviors such as using tobacco , alcohol , and other drugs , having unprotected sex , and even not using a seatbelt ( Kann et , 2011 ) Commenting on the report , a official said , This report should be a call . We are very concerned that these students face such dramatic disparities for so many different health risks ( 2011 ) Ironically , despite the bullying and another mistreatment that teens receive at school , they are much more likely to be disciplined for misconduct than straight students accused of similar misconduct . This disparity is greater for girls than for boys . The reasons for the disparity remain unknown but may stem from unconscious bias against gays and lesbians by school officials . As a scholar in educational psychology observed , To me , it is saying there is some kind of internal bias that adults are not aware of that is impacting the punishment of this group ( George , 2010 ) Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 395

This candlelight vigil honored the memory of Matthew Shepard , a gay college student , who was tortured , tied , to a fence , and left to die in Wyoming in 1998 . He was in a coma when he was found and died a few days later . Barnes 98 BY . Children and Our Future The Homeless Status of Teens Many teens are taunted , bullied , and otherwise mistreated at school . As the text discusses , this mistreatment affects their school performance and psychological , and some even drop out of school 396 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

as a result . We often think of the home as a haven from the realities of life , but the lives of many gay teens are often no better at home . If they come out ( disclose their sexual orientation ) to their parents , one or both parents often reject them . Sometimes they kick their teen out of the home , and sometimes the teen leaves because the home environment has become intolerable . Regardless of the reason , a large number of teens become homeless . They may be living in the streets , but they may also be living with a friend , at a homeless shelter , or at some other venue . But the bottom line is that they are not living at home with a parent . The actual number of homeless teens will probably never be known , but a study in Massachusetts of more than high school students was the first to estimate the prevalence of their homelessness using a representative sample . The study found that 25 percent of gay or lesbian teens and 15 percent of bisexual teens are homeless in the state , compared to only percent of heterosexual teens . Fewer than percent of the students in the study identified themselves as , but they accounted for 19 percent of all the homeless students who were surveyed . Regardless of their sexual orientation , some homeless teens live with a parent or guardian , but the study found that homeless teens were more likely than their heterosexual counterparts to be living without a parent . Being homeless adds to the problems that many teens already experience . Regardless of sexual orientation , homeless people of all ages are at greater risk for victimization by robbers and other offenders , hunger , substance abuse , and mental health problems . The study noted that teen homelessness may be Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 397

higher in other states because attitudes about status are more favorable in Massachusetts than in many other states . Because the study was administered to high school students , it may have teens , who are more likely to be absent from school . These methodological limitations should not obscure the central message of the study as summarized by one of its authors The high risk of homelessness among sexual minority teens is a serious problem requiring immediate attention . These teens face enormous risks and all types of obstacles to succeeding in school and are in need of a great deal of assistance . Sources Connolly , 2011 Corliss , Nichols , Austin , 2011 Employment Discrimination Federal law prohibits employment discrimination based on race , nationality , sex , or religion . Notice that this list does not include sexual orientation . It is entirely legal under federal law for employers to refuse to hire individuals or those perceived as , to fire an employee who is openly or perceived as , or to refuse to promote such an employee . states do prohibit employment discrimination based on sexual orientation , but that leaves states that do not prohibit such discrimination . Employers in these states are entirely free to refuse to hire , fire , or refuse to promote people ( openly or perceived as ) as they see fit . In addition , only fifteen states prohibit employment discrimination based on gender identity 398 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

( transgender ) which leaves states in which employers may practice such discrimination ( Human Rights Campaign , 2011 ) The Employment Act ( which would prohibit job discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity , has been proposed in Congress but has not come close to passing . In response to the absence of legal protection for employees , many companies have instituted their own policies . As of March 2011 , 87 percent of the Fortune 500 companies , the largest 500 corporations in the United States , had policies prohibiting sexual orientation discrimination , and 46 percent had policies prohibiting gender identity discrimination ( Human Rights Campaign , 2011 ) National survey evidence shows that many people have , in fact , experienced workplace discrimination ( Sears Mallory , 2011 ) In the 2008 , percent of respondents said they had been verbally harassed at work during the past five years , and percent said they had been either fired or not hired during the same period ( 2008 ) In other surveys that are not based on nationally representative samples , the percentage of respondents who report workplace harassment or discrimination exceeds the figures . Not surprisingly , more than of employees say they conceal their sexual orientation in their workplace . Transgender people appear to experience more employment problems than people , as 78 percent of transgender respondents in one study reported some form of workplace harassment or discrimination . Scholars have also conducted field experiments in which they send out resumes or job applicants to prospective employers . The resumes are identical except that some mention the applicant is , while the others do not indicate sexual orientation . The job applicants similarly either say they are or do not say this . The resumes and applicants are less likely than their counterparts to receive a positive response from prospective employers . people who experience workplace harassment and discrimination suffer in other ways as well ( Sears Mallory , 2011 ) Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 399

Compared to employees who do not experience these problems , they are more likely to have various mental health issues , to be less satisfied with theirjobs , and to have more absences from work . Applying Social Research How Well Do the Children of Couples Fare ?

Many opponents of marriage claim that children are better off if they are raised by both a mother and a father and that children of couples fare worse as a result . As the National Organization for Marriage ( National Organization for Marriage , 2011 ) states , Two men might each be a good father , but neither can be a mom . The ideal for children is the love of their own mom and dad . No couple can provide that . Addressing this contention , social scientists have studied the children of couples and compared them to the children of heterosexual parents . Although it is difficult to have random , representative samples of couples children , a growing number of studies find that these children fare at least as well psychologically and in other respects as heterosexual couples children . Perhaps the most notable published paper in this area appeared in the American Sociological Review , the preeminent sociology journal , in 2001 . The authors , Judith Stacey and Timothy , reviewed almost two dozen studies that had been done of couples children . All these studies yielded the central conclusion that the psychological of these children is no worse than 400 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

that of heterosexual couples children . As the authors summarized this conclusion and its policy implications , Because every relevant study to date shows that parental sexual orientation per se has no measurable effect on the quality of relationships or on children mental health or social adjustment , there is no evidentiary basis for considering parental sexual orientation in decisions about children best and Stacey returned to this issue in a 2010 article in the Journal of Marriage and the Family , the preeminent journal in its field . This time they reviewed almost three dozen studies published since 1990 that compared the children of couples ( most of them lesbian parents ) to those of heterosexual couples . They again found that the psychological and social adjustment of couples children was at least as high as those of heterosexual couples children , and they even found some evidence that children of lesbian couples fare better in some respects than those of heterosexual couples . Although the authors acknowledged that two parents are generally better for children than one parent , they concluded that the sexual orientation of the parents makes no difference overall . As they summarized the body of research on this issue Research consistently has demonstrated that despite prejudice and discrimination children raised by lesbians develop as well as their peers . Across the standard panoply of measures , studies find far more similarities than differences among children with lesbian and heterosexual parents , and the rare differences mainly favor the former . This body of research , then , contributes in important ways to the national debate on marriage . If Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 401

children of couples indeed farewell , as the available evidence indicates , concern about these welfare should play no part in this debate . Marriage marriage has been one of the most controversial social issues in recent years . Nearly couples live together in the United States ( Gates , 2012 ) Many of them would like to marry , but most are not permitted by law to marry . In May 2012 , President Obama endorsed marriage . The issue of marriage has aroused much controversy in recent years . As of June 2012 , couples could marry in only seven states and the District of Columbia . Barnes Marriage Equality US Capitol . 402 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

We saw earlier that a narrow margin of Americans now favors the right of couples to marry , and that public opinion in favor of marriage has increased greatly in recent times . As of June 2012 , marriage was legal in seven states ( Connecticut , Iowa , Maryland , Massachusetts , New , New York , Vermont , and Washington ) and the District of Columbia . Nine other states permitted couples to form civil unions or domestic partnerships , which provide some or many of the various legal benefits that married spouses enjoy . In the remaining five states , couples may not legally marry or form civil unions or domestic partnerships . The federal Defense of Marriage Act ( passed in 1996 ( and under legal dispute at the time of this writing ) prohibits federal recognition of marriage . This means that even when couples legally marry because their state allows them to , they do not enjoy the various federal tax , inheritance , and other benefits that married couples enjoy . Most of the states that do not allow marriage also have laws that prohibit recognition of marriages performed in the states that allow them . Arguments against marriage . Opponents of marriage make at least three central points ( 2009 National Organization for Marriage , 2011 ) First , and in no particular order , marriage is intended to procreate the species , and couples can not reproduce . Second , the children that couples do have through adoption or artificial means experience various psychological problems because their parents are gay or lesbian and or because they do not have both a father and a mother . Third , allowing gays and lesbians to marry would undermine the institution of marriage . Arguments for marriage . In reply , proponents of sex marriage make their own points ( Marks , 2009 Human Rights Campaign , 2009 ) First , many heterosexual couples are allowed to marry even though they will not have children , either because they are not able to have them , because they do not wish to have them , or because they are beyond Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 403

childbearing age . Second , studies show that children of couples are at least as psychologically healthy as the children of couples ( see Note Children and Our Future ) Third , there is no evidence that legalizing marriage has weakened the institution of marriage in the few states and other nations that have legalized it ( see Note Lessons from Other Societies ) Lessons from Other Societies Marriage in the Netherlands At the time of this writing , marriage was legal in ten nations Argentina , Belgium , Canada , Iceland , the Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , Spain , South Africa , and Sweden . All these nations have legalized it since 2001 , when the Netherlands became the first country to do so . Because more than a decade has passed since this notable event , it is informative to examine how , if at all , legalization has affected the lives of gays and lesbians and the institution of marriage itself in the Netherlands . One thing is clear There is no evidence that the institution of marriage in the Netherlands has in any respect become weaker because couples have been allowed to marry since 2001 . Heterosexual couples continue to marry , and the institution appears at least as strong as it was before 2001 . It also seems clear that sex marriages are working and that married couples unions are accepted as normal features of contemporary Dutch life . As Vera , a gay rights 404 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

leader in the Netherlands said , Gay marriage is best export because we have shown that it is possible In an interesting development , couples have not exactly rushed to marry . There was an initial spurt in 2001 , and many such couples have married since . However , the Dutch government estimates that only 20 percent of couples have married compared to 80 percent of heterosexual couples . Three reasons may account for this disparity . First , there is less pressure from family and friends for couples to marry than for heterosexual couples to marry . As put it , For heterosexuals , it normal when you in a steady relationship for more than a year , that a lot of people start asking , well when are you getting married ?

With two women or two men you do get that yet . Second , fewer couples than heterosexual couples decide to marry in order to have children . Third , gays and lesbians in the Netherlands are thought to be somewhat more individualistic than their heterosexual counterparts . The couples who have married in the Netherlands seem happy to have done so , at least according to anecdotal evidence . As one spouse reflected on her marriage , It was a huge step . For me it was incredible I been to my brother wedding and my sisters wedding and their spouses were welcomed into the family . Now finally I was able to have my family take my partner in . The moment we got married there was a switch , she was now one of us . The experience of the Netherlands is mirrored in the other nine nations that have legalized marriage . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 405

Legalization seems to be working from all accounts , and the institution of marriage seems to be thriving at least as well as in other nations . As the first openly gay member of the Dutch parliament who played a key role in legalization wryly described its outcome , Heterosexual couples did not turn away from the institution of marriage , and nor did the world isolate my country . After the Netherlands acted , civilization as we know it did end . As the United States continues to debate marriage , it has much to learn from the Netherlands and the other nations that have legalized this form of marriage . Sources Ames , 2011 , 2009 , 2011 Although the children of couples fare at least as well as those of heterosexual couples , it is still difficult in many states for couples to adopt a child . Two states at the time of this writing , Mississippi , and Utah , prohibit adoptions by sex couples , but half of the other states make it very difficult for these adoptions to occur ( 2011 ) For example , in some states , social workers are required to prefer married heterosexual couples over couples in adoption decisions . Moreover , several states require that a couple must be married to be adopted in these states , a single gay or lesbian may adopt , but not a sex couple . Still , adoptions by couples have become more numerous in recent years because of the number of children waiting for adoption and because public opinion about gays and lesbians has become more favorable . 406 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

Costs of the Illegality of Marriage Marriage provides many legal rights , benefits , and responsibilities for the two spouses . Because couples are not allowed to marry in most states and , even if they do marry , are currently denied federal recognition of their marriage , they suffer materially in numerous ways . In fact , there are more than federal rights that heterosexual married couples receive that no married sex couple is allowed to receive ( Shell , 2011 ) We have space here to list only a few of the many costs that the illegality of marriage imposes on couples who can not marry and on the couples whose marriages are not federally recognized ( Human Rights Campaign , 2009 ) Spouses have visitation rights if one of them is hospitalized as well as the right to make medical decisions if one spouse is unable to do so couples do not have these visitation rights . couples can not file joint federal tax returns or joint state tax returns ( in the states that do not recognize marriage ) potentially costing each couple thousands of dollars every year in taxes they would not have to pay if they were able to file jointly . Spouses receive Social Security survivor benefits averaging more than annually when a spouse dies couples do not receive these benefits . Many employers who provide health insurance coverage for the spouse of an employee do not provide this coverage for a partner when they do provide this coverage , the employee must pay taxes on the value of the coverage . When a spouse dies , the surviving spouse inherits the deceased spouse property without paying estate taxes the surviving partner of a couple must pay estate taxes . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 407

Notice that many of these costs are economic . It is difficult to estimate the exact economic costs of the illegality of marriage , but one analysis estimated that these costs can range from to as much as over the lifetime of a sex couple , depending on their income , state of residence , and many other factors ( Bernard , 2009 ) Military Service individuals traditionally were not permitted to serve in the US military . If they remained in the closet ( hid evidence of their sexual orientation ) of course , they could serve with impunity , but many gays and lesbians in the military were given dishonorable discharges when their sexual orientation was discovered . Those who successfully remained in the closet lived under continual fear that their sexual orientation would become known and they would be ousted from the military . As a presidential candidate in 1992 , Bill Clinton said he would end the ban on people in the military . After his election , his intention to do so was met with fierce opposition by military leaders , much of the Congress , and considerable public opinion . As a compromise , in 1993 the government established the don , policy . protected members of the military from being asked about their sexual orientation , but it also stipulated that they would be discharged from the military if they made statements or engaged in behavior that indicated an orientation . Because continued the military ban on people , proponents of allowing them to serve in the military opposed the policy and continued to call for the elimination of any restrictions regarding sexual orientation for military service . In response to a lawsuit , a federal judge in 2010 ruled that 408 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

was unconstitutional . Meanwhile , Barack Obama had also called for the repeal of , both as a presidential candidate and then as president . In late 2010 , Congress passed legislation repealing , and President Obama signed the legislation , which took effect in September 2011 . Official discrimination against gays and lesbians in the military has thus ended , and they may now serve openly in the nation armed forces . It remains to be seen , however , whether they will be able to serve without facing negative experiences such as verbal and physical abuse . Physical and Mental Health It is well known that HIV ( human immunodeficiency virus ) AIDS ( acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ) racked the community beginning in the . Many gays and lesbians eventually died from complications , and HIV and AIDS remain serious illnesses for gays and straights alike . An million Americans now have HIV , and about have AIDS . Almost Americans are diagnosed with HIV annually , more than half of these new cases are men who have had sex with other men . Fortunately , HIV can now be controlled fairly well by appropriate medical treatment ( Centers for Disease Control Prevention , 2011 ) It is less well known that adults have higher rates than straight adults of other physical health problems and also of health problems ( Frost , Meyer , 2011 Institute Medicine , 2011 ) These problems are thought to stem from the stress that the community experiences from living in a society in which they frequently encounter verbal and physical harassment , job discrimination , a need for some to conceal their sexual identity , and lack of equal treatment arising from the illegality of sex marriage . We saw earlier that secondary school students Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 409

experience various kinds of educational and mental health issues because of the mistreatment they encounter . By the time individuals reach their adult years , the various stressors they have experienced at least since adolescence has begun to take a toll on their physical and mental health . 15 countries Loy ' DEATH I The stress of being in a society that disapproves of this sexual orientation is thought to account for the greater likelihood of people to have physical and mental health problems . rights . Because stress is thought to compromise immune systems , individuals on the average have lower immune functioning and lower perceived physical health than straight individuals . Because stress impairs mental health , they are also more likely to have higher rates of depression , loneliness , low , and other psychiatric and psychological problems , including a tendency to attempt suicide ( Sears Mallory , 2011 ) Among all individuals , those who have experienced greater levels of stress related to their sexual orientation have higher levels of physical and mental health 410 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

problems than those who have experienced lower levels of stress . It is important to keep in mind that these various physical and mental health problems do not stem from an sexual orientation in and of itself , but rather from the experience of living as an individual in a homophobic ( disliking behavior and individuals ) society . Despite the health problems that people experience , medical students do not learn very much about these problems . A recent survey of medical school deans found that of medical schools provide no clinical training about these health issues and that students in the medical schools that do provide training still receive only an average of five hours of training ( et , 2011 ) The senior author of the study commented on its findings , It great that a lot of schools are starting to teach these topics . But the conversation needs to go deeper . We heard from the deans that a lot of these important health topics are completely off the radar screens of many medical schools ( White , 2011 ) Heterosexual Privilege In earlier chapters , we discussed the related concepts of white privilege and male privilege . To recall , simply because they are white , whites can go through their daily lives without worrying about or experiencing the many kinds of subtle and negative events that people of color experience . Moreover , simply because they are male , men can go through their daily lives without worrying about or experiencing the many kinds of subtle and negative events that women experience . Whether or not they are conscious of it , therefore , whites and men are automatically privileged compared to people of color and women , respectively . An analogous concept exists in the study of sexual orientation Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 411

and inequality . This concept is heterosexual privilege , which refers to the many advantages that heterosexuals ( or people perceived as heterosexuals ) enjoy simply because their sexual orientation is not . There are many such advantages , and we have space to list only a few Heterosexuals can be out day or night or at school or workplaces without fearing that they will be verbally harassed or physically attacked because of their sexuality or that they will hear jokes about their sexuality . Heterosexuals do not have to worry about not being hired for a job , about being fired , or not being promoted because of their sexuality . Heterosexuals can legally marry everywhere in the United States and receive all the federal , state , and other benefits that married couples receive . Heterosexuals can express a reasonable amount of affection ( holding hands , kissing , etc . in public without fearing negative reactions from onlookers . Heterosexuals do not have to worry about being asked why they prefer relations , being criticized for choosing their sexual orientation or being urged to change their sexual orientation . Heterosexual parents do not have to worry about anyone questioning their fitness as parents because of their sexuality . Heterosexuals do not have to feel the need to conceal their sexual orientation . Heterosexuals do not have to worry about being accused of trying to push their sexuality onto other people . 412 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

People a Improving the Family Lives of Youth Many organizations and agencies around the country aim to improve the lives of teens . One of them is the Family Acceptance Project ( at San Francisco State University , which focuses on the family problems that teens often experience . According to its website , is the only community research , intervention , education , and policy initiative that works to decrease major health and related risks for youth , such as suicide , substance abuse , HIV and the context of their families . We use a , culturally grounded approach to help ethnically , socially and religiously diverse families decrease rejection and increase support for their children . To accomplish its mission , engages in two types of activities research and family support services . In the research area , has published some pioneering studies of the effects of school victimization and of family rejection and acceptance on the physical and mental health of teens during their adolescence and into their early adulthood . In the family support services area , provides confidential advice , information , and counseling to families with one or more children or adolescents , and it also has produced various educational materials for these families and for professionals who deal with issues . At the time of this writing , was producing several documentary videos featuring youth talking about Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 413

their family situations and other aspects of their lives . Its support services and written materials are available in English , Spanish , and Cantonese . Through its pioneering efforts , the Family Acceptance Project is one of many organizations making a difference in the lives of youth . For further information about , visit . Bullying , taunting , and violence are significant problems for the community . people are at greater risk for behavioral and physical and mental health problems because of the many negative experiences they encounter . Federal law does not protect individuals from employment discrimination . The children of couples fare at least as well as children of heterosexual couples . 414 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

. Do you know anyone who has ever been bullied and taunted for being or for being perceived as ?

If so , describe what happened . Write a brief essay in which you summarize the debate over marriage , provide your own view , and justify your view . References Ames , 2011 , April 20 ) Dutch gays do take advantage of opportunity to marry . Retrieved from dispatch news regions europe 110419 marriage . 2009 ) When gay people get married What happens when societies legalize marriage . New York , NY New York University Press . Marks , 2009 , September 22 ) sex couples are families , too . Daily News . Retrieved from detail . Bernard , 2009 , October ) The high price of being a gay couple . New York Times , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2011 ) Basic information about HIV and AIDS . Retrieved September , 2011 , from . Connolly , 2011 , July 21 ) in high school students Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 415

are homeless . Retrieved September , 2011 , from pub releases . Corliss , Nichols , Austin , 2011 ) High burden of homelessness among adolescents Findings from a representative Massachusetts high school sample . American Journal of Public Health , 101 , 2009 , September 27 ) Coming out in middle school . New York Times Magazine , 2011 , April 17 ) Gay marriage diamond anniversary After the Netherlands acted , civilization as we know it end . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved from 2011 17 opinion . Egan , 2010 , spring ) Within reach Reducing inequality in the age of Obama . Pathways A Magazine on Poverty , Inequality , and Social Policy , 2009 , September ) marriage would be harmful to society . Daily News . Retrieved from 2009 2009 2001 opinion . Federal Bureau of Investigation . 2011 ) Crime in the United States , 2010 . Washington , Author . Frost , Meyer , 2011 ) Minority stress and physical health among sexual minorities . Los Angeles , CA Williams Institute . Gates , 2012 ) Couples in Census 2010 Race and Ethnicity . Williams Institute . Retrieved May 29 , 2012 , from uploads . Human Rights Campaign . 2009 ) Answers to questions about marriage equality . Washington , Human Rights Campaign . Human Rights Campaign . 2011 ) Laws Employment discrimination act . Retrieved September , 2011 , from . 416 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

Institute of Medicine . 2011 ) The health of lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender people Building a foundation for better understanding . Washington , National Academies Press . Kann , Olsen , McManus , Harris , et al . 2011 ) Sexual Identity , Sex of Sexual Contacts , and Behaviors Among Students in Grades Risk Behavior Surveillance , Selected Sites , United States , Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report , 60 ( June 10 ) Diaz , 2010 ) The 2009 national school climate survey The experiences of lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender youth in our nation schools . New York , NY Gay , Lesbian and Straight Education Network . 2001 ) Losing Matt Shepard Life and politics in the aftermath of murder . New York , NY Columbia University Press . 2011 , June ) Why gay and bisexual teens are more likely to risk their health . Time . Retrieved from ) 2011 2006 2006 . Mental Health America . 2011 ) Bullying and gay youth . Retrieved from ?

National Organization for Marriage . 2011 ) Marriage talking points . Retrieved September , 2011 , from ( site Marriage Talking . National Organization for Marriage . 2011 ) marriage Answering the toughest questions . Retrieved September , 2011 , from site Marriage Talking . Goldsmith , Stewart , White , Tran , et al . 2011 ) Lesbian , gay , bisexual , and content in undergraduate medical education . JAMA , 306 ( Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 417

Russell , Ryan , Diaz , Sanchez , 2011 ) Lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender adolescent school victimization implications for young adult health and adjustment . Journal of School Health , 81 ( 2008 ) cumulative . Retrieved from ?

Sears , Mallory , 2011 ) Documented evidence of employment discrimination its effects on people . Los Angeles , LA Williams Institute . Shell , A . 2011 , July 22 ) Legal gay marriage does end money headaches . USA Today . Retrieved from monev index . George , 2010 , December ) Gay and lesbian teens are punished more at school , by police , study says . The Washington Post . Retrieved from content article 2010 12 06 . Talbot , 2010 , October 25 ) Pride and prejudice . The New Yorker . Retrieved from . 2011 , July 14 ) Adoptions rise by couples , despite legal barriers . New York Times , White , 2011 ) health issues not being taught at medical schools , Stanford study finds . Retrieved September , 2011 , from pub releases . 418 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

Improving the Lives of the Community Understand which measures show promise of reducing inequality based on sexual orientation . The inequality arising from sexual orientation stems from standing and prejudice against attraction and behavior and against the many people whose sexual orientation is not heterosexual We have seen in this chapter that attitudes about and related to sexuality has become markedly more positive since a generation ago . Reflecting this trend , the number of openly gay elected officials and candidates for office has increased greatly since a generation ago , and the sexual orientation of candidates appears to be a in many areas of the nation ( Page , 2011 ) In a 2011 poll , of Americans said they would vote for a gay candidate for president , up from only of Americans in 1978 ( Page , 2011 ) Also in 2011 , the US Senate confirmed the nomination of the first openly gay man for a federal judgeship ( 2011 ) To paraphrase the slogan of a nationwide campaign aimed at helping gay teens deal with bullying and another mistreatment , it is getting better . Much of this improvement must be credited to the gay rights Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 419

movement that is popularly thought to have begun in June 1969 in New York City after police raided a gay bar called the Stonewall Inn and arrested several people inside . A crowd of several hundred people gathered and rioted in protest that night and the next night . The gay rights movement had begun . Despite the advances , this movement has made and despite the improvement in public attitudes about issues , we have seen in this chapter that people continue to experience many types of inequality and other problems . As with inequality based on race ethnicity , social class , and gender , there is much work still to be done to reduce inequality based on sexual orientation . For such inequality to be reduced , it is certainly essential that heterosexuals do everything possible in their daily lives to avoid any form of mistreatment of individuals and to treat them as they would treat any heterosexual . Beyond this , certain other measures should help address inequality . These measures might include , but are not limited to , the following . Parents should make clear to their children that all sexual are equally valid . Parents whose child happens to be should love that child at least as much as they would love a heterosexual child . School programs should continue and strengthen their efforts to provide students a positive environment in regard to sexual orientation and to educate them about issues . Bullying and other harassment of students must not be tolerated . In 2011 , California became the first state to require the teaching of gay and lesbian history other states should follow this example . Federal law should prohibit employment discrimination against people , and marriages should become legal throughout the United States . In the meantime , new legislation should provide couples the same rights , responsibilities , and benefits that heterosexual married couples have . 420 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

. Police should continue to educate themselves about issues and should strengthen their efforts to ensure that physical attacks on people are treated at least as seriously as attacks on heterosexual people are treated . Although the gay rights movement has made significant advances , many types of inequality based on sexual orientation continue to exist . Several measures should be begun or continued to reduce inequality based on sexual orientation . Is there a gay rights advocacy group on your campus ?

If so , what is your opinion of it ?

How do you think parents should react if their teenaged daughter or son comes out to them ?

Explain your answer . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 421 References , 2011 , July 18 ) In a quiet moment , gay judge makes history . The Washington Post . Retrieved from . Page , 2011 , July 20 ) Gay candidates gain acceptance . USA Today . Retrieved from news politics index . Sexual Orientation Inequality Summary . Sexual orientation refers to a person preference for sexual relationships with individuals of the other sex , one own sex , or both sexes . The term also increasingly refers to transgender individuals , whose behavior , appearance , and gender identity departs from conventional norms . According to national survey evidence , almost percent of American adults identify as ( lesbian ) a figure equivalent to million adults . Almost 20 million have engaged in relations . Male homosexuality in ancient Greece and Rome 422 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

seems to have been accepted and rather common , but Europe , the Americas , and other areas influenced by the tradition have long viewed homosexuality very negatively . In many societies studied by anthropologists , homosexuality is rather common and considered a normal form of sexuality . Scholars continue to debate whether sexual orientation is more the result of biological factors or social and cultural factors . Related to this debate , the public is fairly split over the issue of whether sexual orientation is a choice or something over which people have no control . in the United States is higher among men than among women , among older people than younger people , among the less educated than among the more highly educated , among Southerners than among , and among more religious people than among less religious people . Levels of have declined markedly since a generation ago . Sexual orientation is a significant source of inequality . individuals experience bullying , taunting , and violence they may experience employment discrimination , and they are not allowed to marry in most states . Because of the stress of living as , they are at greater risk than heterosexuals for several types of physical and mental health problems . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 423

You working in a office and generally like your coworkers . However , occasionally you hear them make jokes about gays and lesbians . You never laugh at these jokes , but neither have you ever said anything critical about them . Your conscience is bothering you , but you also know that if you tell your supervisor or coworkers that their joking makes you feel uncomfortable , they may get angry with you and even stop talking to you . What do you decide to do ?

To help reduce inequality based on sexual orientation , you may wish to do any of the following . Start or join an advocacy group on your campus . Write a letter to the editor in favor of marriage . Urge your US Senators and Representative to pass legislation prohibiting employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation . Work for a social service agency in your local 424 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

community that focuses on the needs of teens . Pornography Pornography may be defined as printed or visual materials that are sexually explicit and that are intended to arouse sexual excitement rather than artistic appreciation . This definition is fine as far as it goes , but it does raise many questions that underscore the difficulty of dealing with prostitution . For example , how explicit must a printed or visual material be for it to be explicit ?

Is a picture of a woman in a skimpy negligee explicit , or must she be fully unclothed ?

If a woman in a photo is wearing an evening gown that is very , is that explicit ?

If a young male gets aroused by seeing her cleavage , does that make the photo of her pornographic ?

If two people on network television are obviously beginning to have consensual sex just before a commercial begins ( this is network television , after all ) is that explicit and arousing enough to constitute pornography ?

If you answered no to this last question , what if some viewers did find this short portrayal of consensual sex to be explicit and arousing ?

Is their reaction enough for us to have to conclude that the scene they saw was indeed pornographic ?

How many people in fact have to find a printed or visual material explicit and arousing for it to be considered pornographic ?

These questions suggest that it is not very easy to define pornography after all . Back in the , young males in the United States would leaf through National Geographic magazine to peek at photos of native women who were partially nude . Those photos , of course , were not put there to excite boys across the country instead , they were there simply to depict native people in their Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 425

natural habitat . Another magazine began about the same time that also contained photos of nude women . Its name was Playboy , and its photos obviously had a much different purpose to excite teenage boys and older men alike . Other , more graphic magazines grew in its wake , and today television shows and and movies show more nudity and sex than were ever imaginable in the days when National Geographic was a boy secret pleasure . Beyond these movies and television shows , a powerful pornography industry now exists on the Internet , in porn stores , and elsewhere . Although Playboy quickly became very controversial , it is considered tame compared to what else is now available . If things as different as National Geographic , Playboy , movies , and pornography show nudity and can be sexually arousing , what , then , should be considered pornography ?

Are at least some of the tamer pictures in Playboy really that different from the great paintings in art history that depict nude women ?

This question is not necessarily meant to defend Playboy rather , it is meant to have you think about what exactly is and is not pornography and what , if anything , our society can and should do about it . However we define pornography , sexually explicit materials , along with drugs , prostitution , and abortion , have been common since ancient times ( 1977 ) Archeologists have uncovered sexually explicit drawings , pottery , and other artifacts from China , Greece , Japan , Persia , Peru , and other locations these artifacts depict sexual organs and sexual behavior . Sexually explicit material appears in much writing left from ancient Greece and ancient Rome . Vast quantities of material dealing with sex ( 1977 , 161 ) remain from medieval Europe . The huge amount of pornography that exists today represents a tradition . 426 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

Public Opinion about Pornography Many people oppose pornography , but two very different groups have been especially outspoken over the years , as has been true about prostitution . One of these groups consists of religious organizations and individuals who condemn pornography as a violation of religious values and as an offense to society moral order . The other group consists of feminists who condemn pornography for its sexual objectification of women and especially condemn the pornography that glorifies horrible sexual violence against women . Many feminists also charge that pornography promotes rape by reinforcing the cultural myths discussed earlier . As one writer put it in a famous phrase some thirty years ago , Pornography is the theory , and rape the practice ( Morgan , 1980 , 139 ) The asks , Which of these statements comes closest to your feelings about pornography laws ( There should be laws against the distribution of pornography whatever the age ( There should be laws against the distribution of pornography to persons under 18 or ( There should be no laws forbidding the distribution of pornography . In 2010 , about 31 percent of the public thought that pornography should be illegal for everyone , and 65 percent thought it should be illegal for people under 18 only percent thought there should be no laws against pornography . Adding the last two percentages together , though , 69 percent thought pornography should be legal for everyone 18 and older . Certain aspects of our social backgrounds predict our views about pornography laws . Two of the strongest are gender and religiosity . Focusing on the percentage who favor laws against pornography regardless of age , there is a strong gender difference in this view ( see Figure Gender and Support for Laws against Pornography Regardless of Age ) with women more than twice as likely than men to favor these laws . Religiosity also predicts Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 427

support for pornography laws regardless of age People who consider themselves very religious are five times more likely than those who consider themselves not religious to favor these laws ( see Figure Religiosity and Support for Laws against Pornography Regardless of Age ) Figure Gender and Support for Laws against Pornography Regardless of Age ( Percentage Laws Pornography Regardless Woman Mu Source Data from General Social Survey . 2010 ) Retrieved from ?

Figure Religiosity and Support for Laws against Pornography Regardless of Age ( an Very Religious Moderately Religious Slightly Religion Not Religious Laws Regardless of Age Source Data from General Social Survey . 2010 ) Retrieved from ?

428 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography The Popularity of Pornography Pornography is so widespread and easy to access on the Internet and elsewhere that many people must be viewing it , reading it , and in general using it . Various data and estimates for the United States support this assumption ( Diamond , 2009 Family Safe Media , 2011 ) For example , pornography revenues amount to more than 13 billion annually ( from the sale and rental of adult , the viewing of pornographic Internet sites , the purchase of adult videos on cable and in hotel rooms , payments for phone sex , visits in exotic dance clubs , the purchase of sexually explicit novelties , and subscriptions to and the purchase of sexually explicit magazines ) An estimated 12 percent of all websites are pornographic . In addition , about 40 percent of Americans visit pornographic sites on the Internet at least monthly , and , according to the , of Americans , or almost 60 million adults , have seen an movie in the past year . We saw earlier that gender and religiosity predict views about pornography laws . As you might expect , they also predict movie viewing . Men are more than twice as likely as women to have seen an movie in the past year ( see Gender and Viewing of Movie in Past Year ( Percentage Seeing a Movie at Least Once ) while very religious people are only about third as likely as those who are not religious to have seen an movie . Figure Gender and Viewing of Movie in Past Year ( Percentage Seeing a Movie at Least Once ) Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 429

20 Percentage seeing an Movie at Least one in Past Year Women Men Source Data from General Social Survey . 2010 ) Retrieved from ?

Figure Religiosity and Viewing of Movie in Past Year ( Percentage Seeing a Movie at Least Once ) so I . i . Very Religious Moderately Religious Slightly Religious Not Religious Percentage Seeing an Rated Movie at Least Once In Past Year Source Data from General Social Survey . 2010 ) Retrieved from ?

Effects of Pornography Many feminists and other people oppose pornography because they believe it causes rape or other violence against women . This belief raises an important question To what extent does pornography in fact cause such violence ?

The fairest answer might 430 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography be that we do not really know . Many scholars believe pornography does cause violence against women , but other scholars conclude that pornography does not have this effect and may even help reduce sexual violence by providing a sexual outlet for men ( Diamond , 2009 , 2011 ) These divergent views reflect the complexity of the evidence from studies of pornography . Many studies do conclude that pornography causes rape . For example , male students who watch violent pornography in experiments later exhibit more hostile attitudes toward women than those watching consensual sex or nonsexual interaction . However , it remains doubtful that viewing pornography in real life has a effect that lasts beyond the laboratory setting , and several experimental studies do not even find any effects . In other types of research , rape rates have not risen in the US states that have made their pornography laws more lenient , and states rape rates are not related to their circulation rates of pornographic magazines . Further , rape rates have declined sharply since the early even though pornography is much more widely available now than back then thanks to the Internet and other technologies . A recent review of the research on pornography and rape concluded that pornography does not increase rape ( Ferguson Hartley , 2009 , 323 ) Evidence for a causal relationship between exposure to pornography and sexual aggression is slim and may , at certain times , have been exaggerated by politicians , pressure groups and some social scientists . Some of the debate has focused on violent pornography , but evidence of any negative effects is inconsistent , and violent pornography is comparatively rare in the real world . Victimization rates for rape in the United States demonstrate an inverse relationship between pornography consumption and rape rates . Data from other nations have suggested similar relationships It is concluded that it is time to discard the Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 431

hypothesis that pornography contributes to increased sexual assault behavior . Dealing with Pornography Whatever pornography is or is not , many people find it disgusting , but many other people are more tolerant of it . In our discussion of prostitution , we examined the issue of whether it is proper for a democracy to ban a consensual behavior simply or mostly because many people consider it immoral . The same question may be asked about pornography ( to be more precise , pornography that does not involve children ) especially because it does not appear to cause violence against women . Even if it did cause such violence , efforts to stop it raise important issues of freedom of speech and censorship . In a free society , civil liberties advocates say , we must proceed very cautiously . Once we ban some forms of pornography , they ask , where do we stop ( 2000 ) This issue aside , much of what we call pornography still degrades women by depicting them as objects that exist for men sexual pleasure and by portraying them as legitimate targets of sexual violence . These images should be troubling for any society that values gender equality . The extent of pornography in the United States may , for better or worse , reflect our historical commitment to freedom of speech , but it may also reflect our lack of commitment to full equality between women and men . Even if , as we have seen , the survey evidence shows growing disapproval of traditional gender roles , the persistence of pornography shows that our society has a long way to go toward viewing women as equally human as men . 432 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

Pornography is notoriously difficult to define . Just as beauty is in the eyes of the beholder , to quote the old saying , so is pornography . Pornography is a major industry in the United States and around the world and accounts for about 13 billion in US revenues annually . A growing conclusion from the research evidence is that pornography does not lead to violence against women . In addition to this consideration , laws against pornography raise questions of freedom of speech . Do you think all pornography should be legal for people age eighteen and older ?

Why or why not ?

In your opinion , does pornography promote violence against women ?

Explain your answer . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 433 References , 1977 ) Sin , sickness , and sanity A history of sexual attitudes . New York , NY New American Library . Diamond , 2009 ) Pornography , public acceptance and sex related crime A review . International Journal of Law Psychiatry , 32 ( Family Safe Media . 2011 ) Pornography statistics . Retrieved October 23 , 2011 , from pornography . Ferguson , Hartley , 2009 ) The pleasure is momentary the expense damnable ?

The influence of pornography on rape and sexual assault . Aggression Violent Behavior , 14 ( Morgan , 1980 ) Theory and practice Pornography and rape . In ( Ed . Take Back the Night ( New York , NY William Morrow . 2000 ) Defending pornography Free speech , sex , and the fight for women rights . New York , NY New York University Press . 2011 ) Review essay Pornography effects The need for solid evidence . Book review . Violence Against Women , 17 ( Adapted from Chapter and Chapter from Social Problems by University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons International License , except where otherwise noted . Adapted from pages 39 through 43 from Beyond Race Cultural Influences on Human Social Life Vera under the license . 434 Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography

Adapted from The International of Human . Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation , Sexuality , Pornography 435