Human Behavior and the Social Environment II Part I Chapter 5 Cultural Identity

Chapter Cultural Identity Explain the of culture on social and identity Discuss how personal , cultural , and universal identities shape perceptions Illustrate the relationship between self and social labels on status Assess the impact of technological advances and innovation on identity Identity Formation Trying to figure out who you are , what you value and believe , and why you think the way you do is a lifelong process . In the first chapter of Thinking Well , Stewart Kelly suggests , we all have lenses through which we view reality , and we need to know what our individual lens is composed of and how it our perception of reality . Take a moment to reflect and hypothetically paint a picture of yourself with words . Try to capture the core of your being by describing who you are . Once you have formulated 90 Chapter Cultural Identity

a description of yourself , evaluate what you wrote . Does your description focus on your personal characteristics or your cultural characteristics you learned from other people in your life ( family , friends , congregation , teachers , community , etc ) Cultural identity , like culture itself , is a social construct . The values , beliefs , norms , expressive symbols , practices , and artifacts we hold develop from the social relationships we experience throughout our lives . Not only does cultural identity make us aware of who we are , but it also defines what we stand for in comparison to others . Cultural identity is relational between individuals , groups , and society meaning through culture people are able to form social connections or refrain from them . It is real to each of us with real social consequences . As defined in Module , we learn culture through the process of . Socializing agents including family , peers , school , work , and the media transmit traditions , customs , language , tools , and common experiences and knowledge . The passage of culture from one generation to the next ensures sustainability of that culture by instilling specific traits and characteristics of a group or society that become part of each group members identity . Identity Labels and Categories Identity shapes our perceptions and the way we categorize people . Our individual and collective views influence our thinking . Regardless of personal , cultural , or universal identity people naturally focus on traits , values , behaviors , and practices or behaviors they identify with and have a tendency to dismiss those they do not . Age Cohorts Our numeric ranking of age is associated with particular cultural traits . Even the social categories we assign to age express cultural characteristics of that age group or cohort . Age signifies one cultural identity and social status ( and 2012 ) Many of the most common labels we use in society signify age categories and attributes . For example , the terms newborns and infants generally refer to children from birth to age four , whereas Chapter Cultural Identity 91

age children signifies youngsters old enough to attend primary school . Each age range has social and cultural expectations placed upon by others ( and 2012 ) We have limited social expectations of newborns , but we expect infants to develop some language skills and behaviors like potty training or the practice of controlling bowel movements . Even though cultural expectations by age vary across other social categories ( gender , geography , ethnicity , etc . there are universal stages and understanding of intellectual , personal , and social development associated with each age range or cohort . Throughout a person life course , they will experience and transition across different cultural phases and stages . Life course is the period from one birth to death ( et al . 2015 ) Each stage in the life course aligns with values , beliefs , norms , expressive language , practices , and artifacts . Like other social categories , age can be a basis of social ranking ( and 2012 ) Society finds it perfectly acceptable for a baby or infant to wear a diaper but considers it a taboo or fetish among an adult 30 years old . However , diaper wearing becomes socially acceptable again as people age into senior years of life when biological functions become harder to control . This is also an illustration of how people will experience more than one status during their lifetime . Aging is a human universal ( and 2012 ) Maneuvering life course is sometimes challenging . Cultural socialization occurs throughout the life course . Learning the cultural traits and characteristics needed at certain stages of life is important for developing and group acceptance . People engage in anticipatory socialization to prepare for future life roles or expectations ( et al . 2015 ) By engaging in social interactions with other people , we learn the cultural traits , characteristics , and expectations in preparation for the next phase or stage of life . Thinking back to potty training infants , parents and caregivers teach young children to control bowel movements so 92 Chapter Cultural Identity

they are able to urinate and defecate in socially appropriate settings ( restroom or outhouse ) and times . Generations have collective identity or shared experiences based on the the group lived . Consider the popular culture of the to today . In the 19805 , people used a landline or fixed line phone rather than a cellular phone to communicate and went to a movie theater to see a film rather than downloaded a video to a mobile device . Therefore , someone who spent his or her youth and most of their adulthood without or with limited technology may not deem it necessary to have or operate it in daily life . Whereas , someone born in the 19905 or later will only know life with technology and find it a necessary part of human existence . Each generation develops a perspective and cultural identify from the time and events surrounding their life . Generations experience life differently resulting from cultural and social shifts over time . The difference in life experience alters perspectives towards values , beliefs , norms , expressive symbols , practices , and artifacts . Political and social events often mark an era and influence generations . The ideology of white supremacy reinforced by events of Nazi Germany and World War II during the 19305 and 19405 instilled racist beliefs in society . Many adults living at this time believed the essays of Arthur ( regarding the existence of biologically differences between racial groups ( 1970 ) It was not until the 19605 and 19705 when philosophers and critical theorists studied the underlying structures in cultural products and used analytical concepts from linguistics , anthropology , psychology , and sociology to interpret race discovering no biological or phenological variances between human groups and finding race is a social construct ( Black and 2000 ) Scientists found cultural likeness did not equate to biological likeness . Nonetheless , many adults living in the 19305 and 19405 held racial beliefs of white supremacy throughout their lives because of the ideologies spread and shared during their lifetime . Whereas , modern science verifies the DNA of all people living today is alike and a new generation of people are Chapter Cultural Identity 93

learning that there is only one human race despite the physical variations in size , shape , skin tone , and eye color ( Smithsonian 2018 ) Because there are diverse cultural expectations based on age , there can be conflict between age cohorts and generations . Age stratification theorists suggest that members of society are classified and have social status associated to their age ( Riley , Johnson , and 1972 ) Conflict often develops from age associated cultural differences influencing social and economic power of age groups . For example , the economic power of working adults conflicts with the political and voting power of the retired or elderly . Age and generational conflicts are also highly influenced by government or milestones . In the United States , there are several markers including the legal age of driving ( 16 years old ) use of tobacco products ( 21 years old ) consumption of alcohol ( 21 years old ) and age of retirement ( years old ) Regardless of knowledge , skill , or condition , people must abide by formal rules with the expectations assigned to the each age group within the law . Because age serves as a basis of social control and reinforced by the state , different age groups have varying access to political and economic power and resources ( et al . 2015 ) For example , the United States is the only industrialized nation that does not respect the abilities of the elderly by assigning a marker of years old as the indicator for someone to become a dependent of the state and an economically unproductive member of society . Sex and Gender Each of us is born with physical characteristics that represent and socially assign our sex and gender . Sex refers to our biological differences and gender the cultural traits assigned to females and males ( and 2012 ) Our physical 94 Chapter Cultural Identity

distinguishes our sex as either female or male implicating the gender socialization process we will experience throughout our life associated with becoming a woman or man . Gender identity is an individual of being female or male and their association with feminine and masculine qualities . People teach gender traits based on sex or biological composition ( and 2012 ) Our sex signifies the gender roles ( psychological , social , and cultural ) we will learn and experience as a member of society . Children learn gender roles and acts of sexism in society through socialization ( et al . 2015 ) Girls learn feminine qualities and characteristics and boys masculine ones forming gender identity . Children become aware of gender roles between the ages of two and three and by four to five years old , they are fulfilling gender roles based on their sex ( et al . 2015 ) Nonetheless , characteristics do not always match one self or cultural identity as people grow and develop . Why do people need and use gender labels ?

Why do people create gender roles or expectations ?

Do gender labels and roles influence limitations on individuals or the social world ?

Explain . Gender stratification focuses on the unequal access females have to socially valued resources , power , prestige , and personal freedom as compared to men based on differing positions within the Chapter Cultural Identity 95 cultural hierarchy ( Light , Keller , and 1997 ) Traditionally , society treats women as citizens in society . The design of dominant gender ideologies and inequality maintains the prevailing social structure , presenting male privilege as part of the natural order ( 2006 ) Theorists suggests society is a male dominated patriarchy where men think of themselves as inherently superior to women resulting in unequal distribution of rewards between men and women ( 2011 ) Media portrays women and men in stereotypical ways that reflect and sustain socially endorsed views of gender ( Wood 1994 ) Media affects the perception of social norms including gender . People think and act according to stereotypes associated with one gender broadcast by media ( 2016 ) Media stereotypes reinforce gender inequality of girls and women . According to Wood ( 1994 ) the underrepresentation women in media implies that men are the cultural standard and women are unimportant or invisible . Stereotypes of men in media display them as independent , driven , skillful , and heroic lending them to positions and power in society . In countries throughout the world , including the United States , women face discrimination in wages , occupational training , and job promotion ( 2006 ) As a result , society tracks girls and women into career pathways that align with gender roles and match aspirations such as teaching , nursing , and human services ( 2011 ) Society views men work as having higher value than that of women . Even if women have the same job as men , they make 77 cents per every dollar in comparison ( et al . 2015 ) Inequality in career pathways , job placement , and promotion or advancement result in an income gap between genders effecting the buying power and economic vitality of women in comparison to men . The United Nations found prejudice and violence against women are firmly rooted in cultures around the world ( 2006 ) Gender inequality has allowed men to harness and abuse their social power . The leading cause of injury among women of reproductive 96 Chapter Cultural Identity

age is domestic violence , and rape is an everyday occurrence and seen as a male prerogative throughout many parts of the world ( 2006 ) Depictions in the media emphasize male dominant roles and normalize violence against women ( Wood 1994 ) Culture plays an integral role in establishing and maintaining male dominance in society ascribing men the power and privilege that reinforces subordination and oppression of women . research shows gender stratification decreases when women and men make equal contributions to human subsistence or survival ( 1974 ) Since the industrial revolution , attitudes about gender and work have been evolving with the need for women and men to contribute to the labor force and economy . work , attitudes , and beliefs have transformed in responses to American economic needs ( 1984 , 2000 ) Today society is encouraging gender resulting from cultural shifts among women seeking college degrees , prioritizing career , and delaying marriage and childbirth . Your task is to find the ten words on the inventory trait list below that are most often culturally associated with each of the following labels and categories femininity , masculinity , wealth , poverty , President , teacher , mother , father , minister , or athlete . Write down the label or category and ten terms to compare your lists with other students . Chapter Cultural Identity 97

reliable 22 analytical . so yielding 23 . 24 , Jealous willing to take helpful a stand . defends own ability 44 tender beliefs Cheerful sensitive to 45 ) other needs 46 aggressive truthful 47 gullible 28 take 48 shy risks 49 as ea er conscientious understanding 50 athletic secretive 51 a a affectionate makes 52 . i ua 12 theatrical decisions easily 32 does not use assertive Compassionate harsh flatterable 33 Sincere language 15 happy 54 strong 55 35 . competitive personality . 17 I loves children conceited 57 , tactful unpredictable 37 dominant 58 i ious 19 forceful 38 soft spoken 59 ' en ' 39 likable conventional masculine Compare your results with other students in the class and answer the following questions . What are the trait similarities and commonalities between femininity , masculinity , wealth , poverty , President , teacher , mother , father , minister , and athlete ?

98 Chapter Cultural Identity . How are masculinity and femininity used as measures of conditions and vocations ?

Sexuality and Sexual Orientation Sexuality is an inborn person capacity for sexual feelings ( et al . 2015 ) Normative standards about sexuality are different throughout the world . Cultural codes prescribe sexual behaviors as legal , normal , deviant , or pathological ( and 2012 ) In the United States , people have restrictive attitudes about premarital sex , extramarital sex , and homosexuality compared to other industrialized nations ( et al . 2015 ) The debate on sex education in US . schools focuses on abstinence and contraceptive curricula . In addition , people in the US have restrictive attitudes about women and sex , believing men have more urges and therefore it is more acceptable for them to have multiple sexual partners than women setting a double standard . Sexual orientation is a biological expression of sexual desire or attraction ( and 2012 ) Culture sets the parameters for sexual norms and habits . dictates and controls social acceptance of sexual expression and activity . Eroticism like all human activities and preferences is learned and malleable ( and 2012 ) Sexual orientation labels categorize personal views and representations of sexual desire and activities . Most people ascribe and conform to the sexual labels constructed and assigned by society ( heterosexual or desire for the opposite sex , homosexual or attraction to the same sex , bisexual or appeal to both sexes , and asexual or lack of sexual attraction and indifference ) The projection of ones sexual personality is often through gender Chapter Cultural Identity 99

identity . Most people align their sexual disposition with what is socially or appropriate ( and 2012 ) Because sexual desire or attraction is inborn , people within the dominant group ( heterosexual ) often believe their sexual preference is However , heterosexual fit or type is not normal . History has documented diversity in sexual preference and behavior since the dawn of human existence ( and 2012 ) There is diversity and variance in people libido and psychosocial relationship needs . Additionally , sexual activity or fantasy does not always align to sexual orientation ( and 2012 ) Sexual pleasure from use of sexual toys , homoerotic images , or kinky fetishes do not necessarily correspond to a specific orientation , sexual label , or mean someone desire will alter or convert to another type because of the activity . Regardless , society uses sexual identity as an indicator of status dismissing the fact that sexuality is a learned behavior , flexible , and contextual ( and 2012 ) People feel and display sexual variety , erotic impulses , and sensual expressions throughout their lives . Individuals develop sexual understanding around middle childhood and adolescence ( APA 2008 ) There is no genetic , biological , developmental , social , or cultural evidence linked to homosexual behavior . The difference is in society discriminatory response to homosexuality . Alfred was the first to identify sexuality is a continuum rather than a dichotomy of gay or straight ( et al . 2015 ) His research showed people do not necessarily fall into the sexual categories , behaviors , and constructed by society . Eve ( 1990 ) expanded on research to find women are more likely to express relationships such as hugging , handholding , and physical closeness . Whereas , men often face negative sanctions for displaying behavior . Society meaning to sexual activities ( and 2012 ) Variance reflects the cultural norms and sociopolitical conditions of a time and place . Since the , organized efforts by ( Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , Transgender , and Questioning ) 100 Chapter Cultural Identity

activists have helped establish a gay culture and civil rights ( 1992 ) Gay culture provides social acceptance for persons rejected , marginalized , and punished by others because of sexual orientation and expression . Queer theorists are reclaiming the derogatory label to help in broadening the understanding of sexuality as flexible and fluid ( et al . 2015 ) Sexual culture is not necessarily subject to sexual desire and activity , but rather dominant affinity groups linked by common interests or purpose to restrict and control sexual behavior . Geographic Region The place people live or occupy renders a lifestyle and cultural identity . People identify with the geographic location they live in as a part of who they are and what they believe ( and 2012 ) Places have specific to their geographic location , environmental surroundings , and population . As one of the largest cities in the United States , New York City is home to 21 million together speaking over 200 languages ( US . News and World Report 2017 ) The city itself is and its large population supports the need for around the clock services as the city that never With so many people living in the metropolis , it is a diverse melting pot of racial , ethnic , and economic backgrounds though each neighborhood is its own enclave with its own identity . This large , heterogeneous population effects the impersonal , sometimes characterized as dismissive and arrogant attitudes of its residents . By the very nature and size of the city , people are able to maintain anonymity but can not develop or sustain intimacy with the entire community or its residents . With millions of diverse people living , working , and playing in 304 square miles , it is understandable why tourists or newcomers feel that residents are in a rush , rude , and unfriendly . On the opposite side of the nation in the Central Valley of California , many residents live in rural communities . The Central Valley is home to million people across square miles ( American Museum of Natural History 2018 ) Though there is a large , metropolitan hub of Fresno , surrounding communities identify Chapter Cultural Identity 101

themselves as small , agricultural with a country lifestyle . Here residents seek interactions and communities operate as kin or families . Like other social categories or labels , people use location to denote status or lifestyle . Consider people in the US who live in Beverly Hills or work on Wall Street These locations imply status and privilege . Values of a dominant regional culture marginalize those who do not possess or have the cultural characteristics of that geographic location ( and 2012 ) People who do not culturally fit in a place face social stigma and rejection . People move to explore new areas , experience new cultures , or change status . Changing where we live means changing our social and cultural surroundings including the family , friends , acquaintances , etc . The most desirable spaces are distributed inequitably ( and 2012 ) Wealth and privilege provide access to desirable locations and living conditions . The poor , immigrants , and ethnic minorities are most likely to be concentrated in poor communities with less than optimal living standards ( and 2012 ) impoverished groups are the most likely to be exposed to environmental hazards and dangerous living conditions . The disproportionate impact of ecological hazards on people of color has led to the development of the environmental justice movement to abolish environmental racism and harm ( Energy Justice Network 2018 ) Geographic places also convey or signify stereotypes . People living in or being from an area inherent the region stereotypes whether they are accurate or not . Think about the previous examples of living in Beverly Hills or working on Wall Street . Stereotypes associated with these labels imply wealth and status . However , approximately 10 of people living in Beverly Hills are living below the poverty rate and most people employed on Wall Street do not work for financial institutions instead are police , sanitation workers , street vendors , and public employees to name a few ( Data USA 2018 ) 102 Chapter Cultural Identity

The place someone lives his or her value system and life . Describe the geographic location you live and the culture of your community . What values and beliefs do the social norms and practices of your neighborhood instill or project among residents ?

What type of artifacts or possessions ( truck , luxury car , recreational vehicle , fenced yard , swimming pool , etc . do people living in your community seek out , dismiss , or condone ?

Do you conform to the cultural standards where you live or deviate from them ?

Explain how the place you live influences your perceptions , choices , and life . Body and Mind Like other human characteristics , society constructs meaning and defines normality to physical and mental ability and appearance ( and 2012 ) Behavior categorized as normal is the standard for determining appropriate thinking and behavior from an illness or disorder . An example of this construct is the criteria for determining mental illness that involves examining a person functionality around accepted norms , roles , status , and behavior Chapter Cultural Identity 103

appropriate for social situations and settings ( 2014 ) The difficulty in defining mental disorders , similar to defining other illness or deformities , is the perspectives of society . For example , homosexuality was considered a mental disorder by American psychiatrists until the early ( 201413 ) Other terms and classifications have either been eliminated or evolved over time including Melancholia ( now Depression ) Amentia ( once referred to Mental Retardation is no longer used ) and Neurosis ( which is now classified into ) Primitive society believed mental illness derived from supernatural phenomena ( 2014 ) Because mental disorders were not always observable , people thought supernatural powers were the cause of illness . These preliterate cultures assumed people became sick because they lost their soul , invaded by an evil spirit , violated a taboo , or were victims of witchcraft ( 2014 ) Witch doctors or shamans used folk medicine and religious beliefs to produce cures . Many of these healers older in age , had high intellect , were sometimes sexual deviants , orphans , disabled , or mentally ill themselves ( 2014 ) Nonetheless , healers helped reduce anxiety and reinforce faith in social norms and customs . Both physical and mental health conditions become part of a persons identity . Medical professionals , as was the case with witch doctors and shamans , play a role in labeling illness or defect internalizing a person condition as part of ones identity ( and 2012 ) As a result , the culture free , scientific objectivity of medicine has come into question . For centuries in western society , science sought to validate religious ideologies and text including the natural inferiority of women and the mental and moral deficiencies of people of color and the poor ( 2006 ) Many scientific opinions about the body and mind of minority groups have been disproven and found to be embellished beliefs posing as objective findings . Medicine and psychiatry like other aspects of social life 104 Chapter Cultural Identity

have entrenched interests and do not always come from a place of science . People adopt behaviors to minimize the impact of their illness or ailment on others . A sick person assumes a sick role when ill and not held responsible for their poor health or disorder , the sick individual is entitled release from normal responsibilities and must take steps to regain his or her health under care of a physician or medical expert ( Parsons 1951 ) Because society views illness as a dysfunction or abnormality , people who are ill or have a condition learn the sick role or social expectations to demonstrate their willingness to cooperate with society though they are unable to perform or maintain standard responsibilities ( attend school , work , participate in physical activity , Social attributes around an ideal body and mind center on youthfulness and wellness without deformity or defect . Though a persons physical and mental health ultimately affects them intrinsically , society influences the social or extrinsic experience related to one body and mind attributes . People face social stigma when they suffer from an illness or condition . 1963 ) defined stigma as an unwanted characteristic that is devalued by society . Society labels health conditions or defects ( cancer , diabetes , mental illness , disability , etc . as abnormal and undesirable creating a negative social environment for people with physical or mental differences . Individuals with health issues or disparities face suspicion , hostility , or discrimination ( and Carr 2013 ) Social stigma accentuates one illness or disorder and alienating persons with physical or cognitive limitations . During the Middle Ages , the mentally ill were categorized as fools and village idiots . Some people were tolerated for amusement , others lived with family , and some were placed on ships for placement at a distant place ( 2014 ) People often blame the victim suggesting one illness or disability resulted from personal choice or behavior , and it is their responsibility to Chapter Cultural Identity 105

resolve , cope , and adapt . Blaming the victim ignores the reality that an illness or defect is always be preventable , people can not always afford health care or purchase the medications to prevent or alleviate conditions , and care or treatment is not always available . Social stigma often results in individuals avoiding treatment for fear of social labeling , rejection , and isolation . One in four persons worldwide will suffer a mental disorder in their lifetime ( 2014 ) In a recent study of California residents , data showed approximately 77 of the population with mental health needs received no or inadequate treatment ( Tran and Ponce 2017 ) Children , older adults , men , Latinos , and Asians , people with low education , the uninsured , and limited English speakers were most likely to have an unmet need of treatment . Respondents in the study reported the cost of treatment and social stigma were the contributing factors to not receiving treatment . Untreated mental disorders have high economic and social costs including alcoholism , drug abuse , divorce , domestic violence , suicide , and unemployment ( 2014 ) The lack of treatment have devastating effects on those in need , their families , and society . Society promotes health and wellness as the norm and ideal life experience . Media upholds these ideals by portraying the body as a commodity and the value of being young , fit , and strong ( and 2012 ) This culture projects individuals who are healthy and well with greater social status than those inflicted with illness or body and mind differences . in society , there is low tolerance for unproductive citizens characterized by the inability to work and contribute to the economy . Darwinian ( 1859 ) ideology embedded in modern day principles promote a culture of strength , endurance , and under the guise of survival of the fittest . This culture reinforces the values of productivity associated to one being healthy and well in order to compete , conquer , and be successful in work and life . There are body and mind differences associated with age , gender , and race . Ideal , actual , and normal body characteristics vary from culture to culture and even within one culture over time ( 106 Chapter Cultural Identity

and 2012 ) Nonetheless , cultures throughout the world are obsessed with youth and beauty . We see examples of this in media and fashion where actors and models are fit to match regional stereotypes of the young and beautiful . In the United States , most Hollywood movies portray heroines and heroes who are fit without ailment or , under the age of 30 , and reinforce beauty labels of ( thin , busty , sexy , cooperative , etc . and masculinity ( built , strong , aggressive , tough , The fashion industry also emphasizes this body by depicting unrealistic ideals of beauty or people to compare themselves while nonetheless achievable buying the clothes and products models sell . Body and mind depictions in the media and fashion create appearance stereotypes that imply status and class . If one contains the resources to purchase brands or expense apparel , she or he are to project status through wealth . If one is attractive , she or he are able to project status through beauty . Research shows stereotypes influence the way people speak to each other . People respond warm and friendly to attractive people and cold , reserved , and humor ess to unattractive ( Snyder 1993 ) Additionally , attractive people earn more than ordinary or unattractive people ( Judge et a . 2009 2011 ) We most also note , if one is able to achieve beauty through plastic surgery or exercise and have no health conditions or deformities , they are also more likely to be socially accepted and obtain status . People with disabilities have worked to dispel misconceptions , promote nondiscrimination , and fair representation ( and 2012 ) Individuals with body and mind illnesses and differences form support groups and establish membership or affinity based on their condition to organize politically . By acknowledging differences and demanding civil rights , people with illnesses and disabilities are able to receive equal treatment and protection under the law eliminating the stigma and discriminatory labels society has long placed on them . Political organization for social change has given people with body and mind differences the ability to redefine culture and insist on social inclusion and Chapter Cultural Identity 107

participation of all people regardless of physical or mental differences , challenges , or limitations . An illustration of civil rights changes occurred in the century with a paradigm shift and growth of professionals , and in mental health ( 2014 ) Treatment altered to focus on psychoanalysis and psychoactive drugs rather than institutionalization . With this new approach , hospital discharges increased and hospitalization stays decreased ( 2014 ) The most recent revolution in mental health treatment was the development of the community mental health model . The model emphasizes local community support as a method of treatment where relationships are the focus of care . This therapeutic approach uses mental health workers who live in the community to fill the service gaps between the patient and professionals stressing a social rather than medical model ( 2014 ) The community mental health model extends civil rights putting consent to treatment and service approach in the hands of patients . Race and Ethnicity There are two myths or ideas about race . The first suggests people inherit physical characteristics distinguishing race . Second , the idea that one race is superior to others or that one pure race exists . In actuality , scientific research mapping of the human genome system found that humans are homogenous ( 2011 ) Race is truly an arbitrary label that has become part of culture with no justifiable evidence to support differences in physical appearance substantiate the idea that there are a variety of human species . Traditionally , racial terms classify and stratify people by appearance and inherently assign racial groups as inferior 108 Chapter Cultural Identity

or superior in society ( and 2012 ) Scientific data finds only one human species making up only one human race . Evidence shows physical differences in human appearance including skin color are a result of human migration patterns and to the environment ( 2012 ) Nonetheless , people use physical characteristics to identify , relate , and interact with one another . Ethnicity refers to the cultural characteristics related to ancestry and heritage . Ethnicity describes shared culture such as group practices , values , and beliefs ( et al . 2015 ) People who identify with an ethnic group share common cultural characteristics ( nationality , history , language , religion , Ethnic groups select rituals , customs , ceremonies , and other traditions to help preserve shared heritage ( and 2012 ) Lifestyle requirements and other identity characteristics such as geography and region influence how we adapt our ethnic behaviors to fit the context or setting in which we live . Culture is also key in determining how human bodies grow and develop such as food preferences and diet and cultural traditions promote certain activities and abilities including physical and sport ( and 2012 ) Someone of Mexican decent living in Central California who is a college professor will project different ethnic behaviors than someone of the same ethnic culture who is a housekeeper in Las Vegas , Nevada . Differences in profession , social class , and region will influence each person lifestyle , physical composition , and health though both may identify and affiliate themselves as Mexican . Not all people see themselves as belonging to an ethnic group or view ethnic heritage as important to their identity . People who do not identify with an ethnic identity either have no distinct cultural background because their ancestors come from a variety of cultural groups and offspring have not maintained a specific culture , instead have a blended culture , or they lack awareness about their ethnic heritage ( and 2012 ) It may be difficult for some people to feel a sense of solidarity or association with any specific Chapter Cultural Identity 109

ethnic group because they do not know where their cultural practices originated and how their cultural behaviors adapted over time . What is your ethnicity ?

Is your ethnic heritage very important , somewhat important , or not important in defining who you are ?

Why ?

Race and ethnic identity like other cultural characteristics influence social status or position in society . Minority groups are people who receive unequal treatment and discrimination based on social categories such as age , gender , sexuality , race and ethnicity , religious beliefs , or class . Minority groups are not necessarily numerical minorities ( Griffith et al . 2015 ) For example , a large group of people may be a minority group because they lack social power . The physical and cultural traits of minority groups are held in low esteem by the dominant or majority group which treats them unfairly ( 20112217 ) The dominant group has higher power and status in society and receives greater privileges . As a result , the dominant group uses its position to discriminate against those that are dif . The dominant group in the United States is represented by white , Protestant people of northern European descent ( 2005 ) Minority groups can garner power by expanding po boundaries or through expanded migration though both of efforts do not occur with ease and require societal support rom minority and dominant group members . The loss of power among dominant groups threatens not only their authority over ot 161 groups but also the privileges and way of life established by the majority . There are seven patterns of relations between dominant and minority groups influencing not only the racial and ethnic identity people but also the opportunities and barriers each will experience through social interactions . contacts and exchanges include genocide , population transfer , internal colonialism , and segregation . Genocide attempts to destroy a group of people because of their race or ethnicity . Labeling the targeted group as inferior or even less than fully human facilitates genocide ( Population transfer moves or expels a 110 Chapter Cultural Identity

minority group through direct or indirect transfer . Indirect transfer forces people to leave by making living conditions unbearable , whereas , direct transfer literally expels minorities by force . Another form of rejection by the dominant group is a type of colonialism . Internal colonialism refers to a country dominant group exploiting the minority group for economic advantage . Internal colonialism generally accompanies segregation ( 2011 ) In segregation , minority groups live physically separate from the dominant group by law . Three adaptive relations include assimilation , and pluralism . The pattern of assimilation is the process by which a minority group assumes the attitudes and language of the dominant or mainstream culture . An individual or group gives up its identity by taking on the characteristics of the dominant culture ( et al . 2015 ) When minorities assimilate by force to dominant ideologies and practices , they can no longer practice their own religion , speak their own language , or follow their own customs . In permissible assimilation , minority groups adopt the dominant culture in their own way and at their own speed ( 2011 ) is the most accepting relationship between dominant and minority groups . or pluralism encourages variation and diversity . promotes affirmation and practice of ethnic traditions while socializing individuals into the dominant culture ( and 2012 ) This model works well in diverse societies comprised of a variety of cultural groups and a political system supporting freedom of expression . Pluralism is a mixture of cultures where each retains its own identity ( et al . 2015 ) Under pluralism , groups exist separately and equally while working together such as through economic interdependence where each group fills a different societal niche then exchanges activities or services for the sustainability and survival of all . Both the multicultural and Chapter Cultural Identity 111

pluralism models stress interactions and contributions to their society by all ethnic groups . Research three online sources on methods and approaches to reducing ethnic conflict such as the following The Path to Ending Ethnic Conflicts Stefan . What is your reaction or feelings about the suggestions or ideas for ending ethnic conflicts presented in the sources you identified ?

Why does type of leadership , approaches to diplomacy , and collective or organizational design matter in reducing ethnic conflicts ?

What is the most important idea from the sources you identified as they relate to peacekeeping and ?

Race reflects a social stigma or marker of superiority ( and 2012 ) When discrimination centers on race , it is racism . There are two types of racial discrimination individual and institutional . Individual discrimination is unfair treatment directed against someone ( 20112218 ) Whereas , institutional discrimination is negative systematic treatment of individuals by 112 Chapter Cultural Identity

society through education , government , economy , health care , etc . According to Perry ( 2000 ) when people focus on differences , they engage in the process of identity formation through structural and institutional norms . As a result , identity conforms to normative perceptions people have of race and ethnicity reinforcing the structural order without challenging the arrangement of society . Maintaining norms reinforces differences , creates tension , and disputes between groups sustaining the status quo and reasserting the dominant groups position and hierarchy in society . Upon the establishment of the United States , white legislators and leaders limited the roles of racial minorities and made them subordinate to those of white Europeans ( and Schmidt 2004 ) This structure systematically created governmental and social disadvantages for minority groups and people of color . Today , toxic waste dumps continue to be disproportionately located in areas with nonwhite populations ( and 2012 ) It has taken over 200 years to ensure civil rights and equal treatment of all people in the United States however , discriminatory practices continue because of policies , precedents , and practices historically embedded in US . institutions and individuals behaving from ideas of racial stereotypes . Think about the differences people have in employment qualifications , compensation , obtaining home loans , or getting into college . What racial and ethnic stereotypes persist about different racial and ethnic groups in these areas of life ?

Whites in the United States infrequently experience racial discrimination making them unaware of the importance of race in their own and others thinking in comparison to people of color or ethnic minorities ( and Schmidt 2004 ) Many argue racial discrimination is outdated and uncomfortable with the blame , guilt , and accountability of individual acts and institutional discrimination . By paying no attention to race , people think racial equality is an act of color blindness and it will eliminate racist atmospheres ( and Schmidt 2004 ) They do not realize the experience of not seeing race itself is racial privilege . Research Chapter Cultural Identity 113

shows the distribution of resources and opportunities are not equal among racial and ethnic categories , and White groups do better than other groups , and Blacks are predominantly among the underclass ( and Schmidt 2004 ) Regardless of social perception , in reality , there are institutional and cultural differences in government , education , criminal justice , and media and ethnic minorities received subordinate roles and treatment in society . Religion and Belief Systems The concept of a higher power or spiritual truth is a cultural universal . Like ethnicity , religion is the basis of identity and solidarity ( and 2012 ) People beliefs and faith support their values , norms , and practices . Individual faith influences one extrinsic motivation and behaviors including treatment of others . Religion is malleable and adaptive for it changes and adapts within cultural and social . Human groups have diverse beliefs and different functions of their faith and religion . Historically , religion has driven both social union and division ( and 2012 ) When religious groups unite , they can be a strong mobilizing force however , when they divide , they can work to destroy each other . Religion is malleable and adaptive for it changes and adapts within cultural and social . Human groups have diverse beliefs and different functions of their faith and religion . Historically , religion has driven both social union and division ( and 2012 ) When religious groups unite , they can be a strong mobilizing force however , when they divide , they can work to destroy each other . Religion may be formal or informal ( and 2012 ) 114 Chapter Cultural Identity

Someone who is a member of an organized religious group , attends religious services , and practices rituals is a participant in formal or institutional religion . Whereas , someone participating in informal religion may or may not be a member of an organized religious group and experiencing a communal spirit , solidarity , and togetherness through shared experience . Informal religion may occur when we participate as a member of a team or during a group excursion such as camp . Religion is a vehicle for guiding values , beliefs , norms , and practices . People learn religion through socialization . The meaning and structure of religion controls lives through sanctions or rewards and punishments . Religion prescribes to a code of ethics to guide behavior ( and 2012 ) One who abides by religious teachings receives rewards such as afterlife and one who contradicts its instruction accepts punishment including damnation . People engage in religion and religious practices because they think it works ( and 2012 ) The connection between religious faith and emotion sustains belief playing a strong role on personal and social identity . What formal or informal religious experiences have you encountered during your life ?

How does your faith and spirituality conform or deviate from your family of origin and friends ?

Social Class A person status influences her or his personal and social identity . In society , we rank individuals on their wealth , power , and prestige ( Weber 1968 1978 ) The calculation of wealth is the addition of one income and assets minus their debts . The net worth of a person is wealth whereas income from work and investments is the resources a person has available to access . Power is the ability to influence others directly or indirectly and prestige is the esteem or respect associated with social status ( Carl 2013 ) This social stratification system or ranking creates inequality in society and determines one social position in areas such as income , education , and occupation . Multiple factors influence social standing , however , people often Chapter Cultural Identity 115

assume hard work and effort leads to a high status and wealth . Socialization reinforces the ideology that social stratification is a result of personal effort or merit ( Carl 2013 ) The concept of is a social ideal or value , but no society exists where the determination of social rank is purely on merit . Inheritance alone shows social standing is not always individually earned . Some people have to put little to no effort to inherit social status and wealth . Additionally , societies operating under a caste system where birth determines lifelong status undermines . Caste systems function on the structure that someone born into a status group remains low status regardless of their accomplishments , and those born into groups stay high status ( 2011 ) The caste system reinforces ascribed status rather than achieved to ensure sustainment of multiple roles and occupations in society . In modern societies , there is evidence of standing in academics and job performance but other factors such as age , disability , gender , race , and region influence life opportunities and challenges for obtaining social standing . A major flaw of is how society measures social contributions . Janitorial and custodial work is necessary in society to reduce illness and manage waste just as much as surgery is to keep people healthy and alive , but surgeons receive greater rewards than janitors do for their contributions . Marx and ( 1967 ) suggested there is a social class division between the capitalists who control the means of production and the workers . In 1985 , Erik Wright that people can occupy contradictory class positions throughout their lifetime . People who have occupied various class positions ( bookkeeper to manager to chief operating officer ) relate to the experiences of others in those positions , and as a result , may feel internal conflict in handling situations between positions or favoring one over another . Late in the twentieth century , Joseph and Dennis Gilbert ( 1992 ) updated the theoretical perspective of Max Weber by developing a model portraying the United States class structure 116 Chapter Cultural Identity

including underclass , working , middle , and capitalists . The social class model depicts the distribution of property , prestige , and power among society based on income and education . Each class lifestyle requires a certain level of wealth in order to acquire the material necessities and comforts of life ( 2011 ) The correlation between the standard of living and quality of life or life chances ( opportunities and barriers ) influences one ability to afford food , shelter , clothing , healthcare , other basic needs , and luxury items . A person standards of living including income , employment , class , and housing effects their cultural identity . Social class serves as a marker or indication of resources . These markers are noticeable in the behaviors , customs , and norms of each stratified group ( Carl 2013 ) People living in impoverished communities have different cultural norms and practices compared to those with middle incomes or families of wealth . For example , the urban poor often sleep on cardboard boxes on the ground or on sidewalks and feed themselves by begging , scavenging , and raiding garbage ( and 2012 ) Middle income and wealth families tend to sleep in housing structures and nourish themselves with food from supermarkets or restaurants . Language and fashion also vary among these classes because of educational attainment , employment , and income . People will use language like white trash or welfare mom to marginalize people in the lower class and use distinguished labels to identify the upper class such as noble and Sometimes people often engage in conspicuous consumption or purchase and use certain products ( buy a luxury car or jewelry ) to make a social statement about their status ( 2011 ) Nonetheless , the experience of poor people is very different in comparison to others in the upper and middle classes and the lives of people within each social class may vary based on their position within other social categories including age , disability , gender , race , region , and religion . Similar to people , nations are also stratified . The most extreme Chapter Cultural Identity 117

social class differences are between the wealthiest in industrialized countries and the poorest in the least developed nations ( and 2012 ) The most industrialized or modern countries have the greatest property and wealth . Most industrialized nations are leaders in technology and progress allowing them to dominant , control , and access global resources . nations have much lower incomes and standards of living than those living in most industrialized nations ( 2011 ) The least industrialized nations are not modern , and people living in these nations tend to be impoverished and live on farms and in villages . Could you survive in poverty , middle class , or wealth ?

In her book A Framework for Understanding Poverty ( 2005 ) Ruby Payne presents lists of survival skills needed by different societal classes . Test your skills by answering the following questions Could you survive in . mark all that apply ) POVERTY find the best rummage sales . locate grocery stores garbage bins that have thrown away food . bail someone out of jail . get a gun , even ifl have a police record . keep my clothes from being stolen at the 118 Chapter Cultural Identity

laundromat . sniff out problems in a used car . live without a checking account . manage without electricity and a phone . entertain friends with just my personality and stories . get by when I do have money to pay the bills . move in half a day . get and use food stamps . find free medical clinics . get around without a car . use a knife as scissors . MIDDLE CLASS know how to get my children into Little League , piano lessons , and soccer . set a table properly . find stores that sell the clothing brands my family wears . use a credit card , checking and savings account . evaluate insurance life , disability , 80 medical , homeowners , and personal property . talk to my children about going to college . get the best interest rate on my car loan . help my children with homework and dont hesitate to make a call if I need more information . WEALTH , check if you can read a menu in French , English , and another language . have favorite restaurants in different countries around the world . know how to hire a professional decorator to help decorate your home during the holidays . Chapter Cultural Identity 119

can name your preferred financial advisor , lawyer , designer , hairdresser , or service . have at least two homes that are staffed and maintained . know how to ensure confidentiality and loyalty with domestic staff . use two or three screens that keep people whom you do wish to see away from you fly in your own plane , the company plane , or the . know how to enroll your children in the preferred private schools . are on the boards of at least two charities . know the hidden rules of the Junior League . know how to read a corporate balance sheet and analyze your own financial statements . support or buy the work of a particular artist . Identity Today All forms of media and technology teach culture including values , norms , language , and behaviors by providing information about activities and events of social significance ( et al . 2015 ) Media and technology socialize us to think and act within cultural appropriate norms and accepted practices . Watching and listening to people act and behave through media and technology shows the influence this social institution has like family , peers , school , and work on teaching social norms , values , and beliefs . 120 Chapter Cultural Identity

Technological innovations and advancements have influenced social interactions and communication patterns in the century creating new social constructions of reality . These changes , particularly in information technology , have led to further segmentation of society based on affinity groups ( and 2012 ) The internet and applications link people together transecting local , state , and national boundaries centered on common interests . People who share interests , ideas , values , beliefs , and practices are able to connect to one another through and virtual worlds . These shared interests create solidarity among while disengaging them from others with differing or opposing interests . interactions have reinforced affinity groups creating attitudes and behaviors that strongly encourage tribalism or loyalty to the social group and indifference to others . Even though there are so many media , news , and information outlets available online , they are homogenous and tell the same stories using the same sources delivering the same message ( McManus 1995 ) Regardless of the news or information outlets one accesses , the coverage of events is predominantly the same with differences focusing on commentary , perspective , and analysis . Shoemaker and Vos ( 2009 ) found this practice allow outlets to serve as gatekeepers by shaping stories and messages into mass appropriate forms and reducing them to a manageable amount for the audience . Fragmentation of stories and messages occurs solely on ideology related to events rather than actual coverage of accounts , reports , or news . Technology like other resources in society creates inequality among social groups ( et al . 2015 ) People with greater access to resources have the ability to purchase and use online services and applications . Privilege access to technological innovations and advancements depend on ones age , family , education , ethnicity , gender , profession , race , and social class ( and 2012 ) Signs of technological stratification are Chapter Cultural Identity 121

visible in the increasing knowledge gap for those with less access to information technology . People with exposure to technology gain further proficiency that makes them more marketable and employable in modern society ( et all 2015 ) Inflation of the knowledge gap results from the lack of technological infrastructure among races , classes , geographic areas creating a digital divide between those who have internet access and those that do not . Native anthropologists study their own culture . For this project , you will explore your own culture by answering the questions below . Your response to each question must be a minimum of one paragraph consisting of sentences , typed , and in ASA format ( paragraphs indented and ) You must include parenthetical citations if you ask or interview someone in your family or kin group to help you understand and answer any one of the questions . Here is a helpful link with information on citing interviews in ASA format ?

PART . In examining your background and heritage , what traditions or rituals do you practice regularly ?

To what extent are traditional cultural group beliefs still held by individuals within the community ?

To what extent and in what areas have your ethnic or traditional culture changed in comparison to your ancestors ?

122 Chapter Cultural Identity . What major stereotypes do you have about other cultural groups based on age , gender , sex , sexuality , race , ethnicity , region , and social class ?

Reflecting on your cultural background , how do you define family ?

What is the hierarchy of authority in your family ?

What do you think are the functions and obligations of the family as a large social unit to individual family members ?

To school ?

To work ?

To social events ?

What do you think are the rights and responsibilities of each family member ?

For example , do children have an obligation to work and help the family ?

In your culture , what stage of life is most valued ?

What behaviors are appropriate or unacceptable for children of various ages ?

How might these conflict with behaviors taught or encouraged in the school , work , or by other social groups ?

How does your cultural group compute age ?

What commemoration is recognized or celebrated , if any ( birthdays , anniversaries , PART . Considering your cultural heritage , what roles within a group are available to whom and how are they acquired ?

Are there class or status differences in the expectations of roles within your culture ?

Do particular roles have positive or malevolent characteristics ?

Is language competence a requirement or qualification for family or cultural group membership ?

How do people greet each other ?

How is deference or respect shown ?

How are insults expressed ?

Who may disagree with whom in the cultural group ?

Under what circumstances ?

Are mitigating forms used ?

Which cultural traditions or rituals are written and how Chapter Cultural Identity 123 widespread is cultural knowledge found in written forms ?

10 . What roles , attitudes , or personality traits are associated with particular ways of speaking among the cultural group ?

11 . What is the appropriate decorum or manners among your cultural group ?

12 . What counts as discipline in terms of your culture , and what doesn ?

What is its importance and value ?

Who is responsible and how is blame ascribed if a child misbehaves ?

14 . Do means of social control vary with recognized stages in the life cycle , membership in various social categories ( gender , region , class , etc . or according to setting or offense ?

15 . What is the role of language in social control ?

What is the significance of using the first the second language ?

PART . What is considered sacred ( religious ) and what secular ( religious ) What religious roles and authority are recognized in the community ?

What should an outsider not know , or not acknowledge knowing about your religion or culture ?

Are there any external signs of participation in religious rituals ( ashes , dress , marking ) Are dietary restrictions to be observed including fasting on particular occasions ?

Are there any prescribed religious procedures or forms of participation if there is a death in the family ?

What taboos are associated with death and the dead ?

Who or what is believed to cause illness or death ( biological supernatural or other causes ) Who or what is responsible for treating or curing illness ?

10 . Reflecting on your culture , what foods are typical or favorites ?

What are taboo ?

11 . What rules are observed during meals regarding age and sex roles within the family , the order of sewing , seating , utensils used , 124 Chapter Cultural Identity and appropriate verbal formulas ( how , and if , one may request , refuse , or thank ) 12 . What social obligations are there with regard to food giving , preparation , reciprocity , and honoring people ?

13 . What relation does food have to health ?

What medicinal uses are made of food , or categories of food ?

14 . What are the taboos or prescriptions associated with the handling , offering , or discarding of food ?

15 . What clothing is common or typical among your cultural group ?

What is worn for special occasions ?

16 . What significance does dress have for group identity ?

17 . How does dress differ for age , sex , and social class ?

What restrictions are imposed for modesty ( can girls wear pants , wear shorts , or shower in the gym ) 18 . What is the concept of beauty , or attractiveness in the culture ?

What characteristics are most valued ?

19 . What constitutes a compliment of beauty or attractiveness in your culture ( in traditional Latin American culture , telling a woman she is getting fat is a compliment ) 20 . Does the color of dress have symbolic significance ( black or white for mourning , celebrations , PART . In your culture , what individuals and events in history are a source of pride for the group ?

How is knowledge of the group history preserved ?

How and in what ways is it passed on to new generations ( writings , or opinions , proverbs or sayings ) Do any ceremonies or festive activities historical events ?

Among your cultural group , what holidays and celebrations are observed ?

What is their purpose ?

What Chapter Cultural Identity 125 cultural values do they intend to inculcate ?

What aspects of do holidays and celebrations observed further ?

In your culture , what is the purpose of education ?

What methods for teaching and learning are used at home ( modeling and imitation , didactic stories and proverbs , direct verbal instruction ) What is the role of language in learning and teaching ?

How many years is it considered normal for children to go to school ?

10 . Are there different expectations with respect to different groups ( boys girls ) In different subjects ?

11 . Considering your culture , what kinds of work are prestigious and why ?

12 . Why is work valued ( financial gain , group welfare , individual satisfaction , promotes group cohesiveness , fulfillment or creation of obligations , position in the community , PART . How and to what extent may approval or disapproval be expressed in you culture ?

What defines the concepts of successful among your cultural group ?

To what extent is it possible or proper for an individual to express personal group goals ?

What beliefs are held regarding luck and fate ?

What significance does adherence to traditional culture have for individual success or achievement ?

What are the perceptions on the acquisition of dominant group culture have on success or achievement ?

Do parents expect and desire assimilation of children to the dominant culture as a result of education and the acquisition of language ?

Are the attitudes of the cultural community the same as or different from those of cultural leaders ?

Among your cultural group , what beliefs or values are associated 126 Chapter Cultural Identity with concepts of time ?

How important is punctuality , speed , patience , 10 . Are particular behavioral prescriptions or taboos associated with the seasons ?

11 . Is there a seasonal organization of work or other activities ?

12 . How do individuals organize themselves spatially in groups during cultural events , activities , or gatherings ( in rows , circles , around tables , on the floor , in the middle of the room , 13 . What is the spatial organization of the home in your culture ( particular activities in various areas of the home , areas allotted to children , or open to children , 14 . What concepts , understandings , and beliefs ( cardinal directions , heaven , hell , sun , moon , stars , natural phenomena , etc . exist among the cultural group or are known to individuals ?

15 . Are particular behavioral prescriptions or taboos associated with concepts , understandings , and beliefs ?

What sanctions are there against individuals violating restrictions or prescriptions ?

16 . Which animals are valued in your culture , and for what reasons ?

17 . Which animals are considered appropriate as pets and which are inappropriate ?

Why ?

18 . Are particular behavioral prescriptions or taboos associated with particular animals ?

19 . Are any animals of religious significance ?

Of historical importance ?

20 . What forms of art and music are most highly valued ?

21 . What art medium and musical instruments are traditionally used ?

22 . Are there any behavioral prescriptions or taboos related to art and music ( both sexes sing , play a particular instrument , paint or photograph nude images , Chapter Cultural Identity 127 References American Museum of Natural History . 2018 . GRACE California Central Valley . American Museum of Natural History Curriculum Collections . Retrieved June 14 , 2018 ( explore grace ) American Psychological Association ( APA ) 2008 . Answers to Your Questions For a Better Understanding of Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality . Washington , Retrieved June 13 , 2018 ( topics ) Michael 1970 . Father of Racist Ideology Social and Political Thought of Count . New York and , Black , Les and John . 2000 . Theories of Race and Racism A Reader . New York . Carl , John 2013 . Think Social Problems . ed . Uppers Saddle River , Pearson Education , William 2014 . Sociology of Mental Disorder . ed . Upper Saddle River , Pearson . Darwin , Charles . 1859 . On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life . London John Murray . Retrieved June 18 , 2018 ( Data USA . 2018 . Beverly Hills , CA . and Collective Learning . Retrieved June 14 , 2018 ( Ashley 2016 . Dominant Group Ethnic Identity in the 128 Chapter Cultural Identity

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