Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part XII Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood Describe how memory changes for those in late adulthood Describe the theories for why memory changes occur Describe how cognitive losses in late adulthood are exaggerated Explain the and mechanics of intelligence Define what is a disorder Explain disease and other disorders Describe work and retirement in late adulthood Describe how those in late adulthood spend their leisure time Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1197

How Does Aging Affect Information Processing ?

There are numerous stereotypes regarding older adults as being forgetful and confused , but what does the research on memory and cognition in late adulthood reveal ?

Memory comes in many types , such as working , episodic , semantic , implicit , and prospective . There are also many processes involved in memory , thus it should not be a surprise that there are declines in some types of memory and memory processes , while other areas of memory are maintained or even show some improvement with age . In this section , we will focus on changes in memory , attention , solving , intelligence , and wisdom , including the exaggeration of losses stereotyped in the elderly . Memory Figure Changes in Working Memory As discussed in chapter , working memory is the more active , effortful part of our memory system . Working memory is composed of three major systems The phonological loop that maintains information about auditory stimuli , the , that maintains information about visual stimuli , and the central executive , that oversees 1198 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

working memory , allocating resources where needed and monitoring whether cognitive strategies are being effective ( Schwartz , 2011 ) Schwartz reports that it is the central executive that is most negatively impacted by age . In tasks that require allocation of attention between different stimuli , older adults fair worse than do younger adults . In a study by , and ( 2007 ) older and younger adults were asked to learn two tasks simultaneously . Young adults eventually managed to learn and perform each task without any loss in speed and efficiency , although it did take considerable practice . None of the older adults were able to achieve this . Yet , older adults could perform at young adult levels if they had been asked to learn each task individually . Having older adults learn and perform both tasks together was too taxing for the central executive . In contrast , working memory tasks that do not require much input from the central executive , such as the digit span test , which uses predominantly the phonological loop , we find that older adults perform on par with young adults ( Dixon Cohen , 2003 ) Changes in Memory As you should recall , memory is divided into semantic ( knowledge of facts ) episodic ( events ) and implicit ( procedural skills , classical conditioning , and priming ) memories . Semantic and episodic memory is part of the explicit memory system , which requires conscious effort to create and retrieve . Several studies consistently reveal that episodic memory shows greater declines than semantic memory ( Schwartz , 2011 , Madden , Voss , 2006 ) It has been suggested that episodic memories may be harder to encode and retrieve because they contain at least two different types of memory , the event and when and where the event took place . In contrast , semantic memories are not tied to any particular timeline . Thus , only the knowledge needs to be encoded or retrieved ( Schwartz , 2011 ) et al . 2006 ) found that retrieval of semantic information was considerably faster for both younger and older adults than the retrieval of episodic information , with there Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1199

being little difference between the two age groups for semantic memory retrieval . They note that older adults poorer performance on episodic memory appeared to be related to slower processing of the information and the difficulty of the task . They found that as the task became increasingly difficult , the gap between each age groups performance increased or episodic memory more so than for semantic memory . Studies that test general know edge ( semantic memory ) such as politics and history ( Dixon , Rust , See , 2007 ) or memory ( 1998 ) often find that older adults outperform younger adults . However , older adults do find that they experience more blocks at retrieving information that they know . In other words , they experience more ( TOT ) events than do younger ac ( Schwartz , 2011 ) Implicit memory requires little conscious effort and often involves skills or more habitual patterns of behavior . This type of memory shows few declines with age . Many studies assessing implicit memory measure the of priming . Priming refers to changes in behavior as a result of frequent or recent experiences . If you were shown pictures of food and asked to rate their appearance and then later were asked to complete words such as , you may be more likely to write soup than soap , or ship . The images of food primed your memory for words connected to food . Does this type of memory and learning change with age ?

The answer is typically no for most older adults ( Church , 1994 ) Prospective memory refers to remembering things we need to do in the future , such as remembering a doctor appointment next week or to take medication before bedtime . It has been described as the of episodic memory ( Schwartz , 2011 , 119 ) Episodic memories are the recall of events in our past , while the focus of prospective memories is of events in our future . In general , humans are fairly good at prospective memory if they have little else to do in the meantime . However , when there are competing tasks that are 1200 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

also demanding our attention , this type of memory rapidly declines . The explanation given for this is that this form of memory draws on the central executive of working memory , and when this component of working memory is absorbed in other tasks , our ability to remember to do something else in the future is more likely to slip out of memory ( Schwartz , 2011 ) However , prospective memories are often divided into prospective memories , such as having to remember to do something at a future time , or based prospective memories , such as having to remember to do something when 11 certain event occurs . When declines are found , they are more likely to be , than , and in laboratory settings rather than in the , where older adults can show comparable or slightly better prospective memory performance ( Henry , Phillips Crawford , 2004 Luo , 2008 ) This should not be surprising given the tendency of older adults to be more selective in where they place their physical , mental , social energy . Having to remember a appointment is of greater concern than remembering to hit the on a computer every time the word tiger is displayed . Aids for Prospective Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1201

Recall versus Recognition Memory performance often depends on whether older adults are asked to simply recognize previously learned material or recall material on their own . Generally , for all humans , recognition tasks are easier because they require less cognitive energy . Older adults show roughly equivalent memory to young adults when assessed with a recognition task ( Rhodes , 81 Jacoby , 2008 ) With recall measures , older adults show memory deficits in comparison to younger adults . While the effect is initially not that large , starting at age 40 adults begin to show declines in recall memory compared to younger adults ( Schwartz , 2011 ) The Age Advantage Fewer age differences are observed when memory cues are available , such as for recognition memory tasks , or when individuals can draw upon acquired knowledge or experience . For example , older adults often perform as well if not better than young adults on tests of word knowledge or vocabulary . With age often comes expertise , and research has pointed to areas where aging experts perform quite well . For example , older typists were found to compensate for declines in speed by looking farther ahead at the printed text ( Salthouse , 1984 ) Compared to younger players , older chess experts focus on a smaller set of possible moves , leading to greater cognitive efficiency ( 1981 ) Accrued knowledge of everyday tasks , such as grocery prices , can help older adults to make better decisions than young adults ( Hasher , May 2001 ) 1202 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

Attention and Problem Solving Changes in Attention in Late Adulthood Changes in sensory functioning and speed of processing information in late adulthood often translate into changes in attention ( Jefferies et , 2015 ) Research has shown that older adults are less able to selectively focus on information while ignoring ( et , 2015 , Schneider , Hoffman , Sanger , 2012 ) although Jefferies and her colleagues found that when given , older adults could perform at young adult levels . Other studies have also found that older adults have greater difficulty shifting their attention between objects or locations ( Tales , Muir , 2002 ) Consider the implication of these attentional changes for older adults . How do changes or maintenance of cognitive ability affect older adults everyday lives ?

Researchers have studied cognition in the context of several different everyday activities . One example is driving . Although older adults often have more years of driving experience , cognitive declines related to reaction time or attentional processes may pose limitations under certain circumstances ( Park , 2000 ) In contrast , research on interpersonal problem solving suggested that older adults use more effective strategies than younger adults to navigate through social and emotional problems ( 2007 ) In the context of work , researchers rarely find that older individuals perform poorer on the job ( Park , 2000 ) Similar to everyday problem solving , older workers may develop more efficient strategies and rely on expertise to compensate for cognitive decline . Problem Solving tasks that require processing information quickly ( a kind of task that might be part of a laboratory experiment on mental processes ) declines with age . However , many challenges facing older adults do not rely on the speed of processing or making choices on ones own . Older adults resolve everyday problems by relying on input from Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1203

others , such as family and friends . They are also less likely than younger adults to delay making decisions on important matters , such as medical care ( Hicks , Cheng Barnes , 2003 Berg , 2002 ) What might explain these deficits as we age ?

The processing speed theory , proposed by Salthouse ( 1996 , 2004 ) suggests that as the nervous system slows with advanced age our ability to process information declines . This slowing of processing speed may explain age differences in many different cognitive tasks . For instance , as we age , working memory becomes less efficient ( 2006 ) Older adults also need a longer time to complete mental tasks or make decisions . Yet , when given sufficient time older adults perform as competently as do young adults ( Salthouse , 1996 ) Thus , when speed is not imperative to the task healthy older adults do not show cognitive declines . In contrast , inhibition theory argues that older adults have difficulty with inhibitory functioning , or the ability to focus on certain information while suppressing attention to less pertinent information tasks ( Hasher , 1988 ) Evidence comes from directed forgetting research . In directed forgetting people are asked to forget or ignore some information , but not other information . For example , you might be asked to memorize a list of words but are then told that the researcher made a mistake and gave you the wrong list and asks you to forget this list . You are then given a second list to memorize . While most people do well at forgetting the first list , older adults are more likely to recall more words from the list than are younger adults ( Andres , Van der Linden , 2004 ) Cognitive losses exaggerated While there are information processing losses in late adulthood , the overall loss has been exaggerated ( Garrett , 2015 ) One explanation is that the type of tasks that people are tested on tend to be meaningless . For example , older individuals are not motivated to remember a random list of words in a study , but they are motivated for more meaningful material related to their life , and consequently perform better on those tests . 1204 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

Another reason is that the research is often . When age comparisons occur longitudinally , however , the amount of loss diminishes ( 1994 ) A third reason is that the loss may be due to a lack of opportunity in using various skills . When older adults practiced skills , they performed as well as they had previously . Although diminished performance speed is especially noteworthy in the elderly , 1994 ) found that statistically removing the effects of speed diminished the individuals performance declines significantly . In fact , Salthouse and ( 1991 ) demonstrated that processing speed accounted for all but of differences in working memory when testing individuals from 18 to 82 . Finally , it is well established that our hearing and vision decline as we age . Longitudinal research has proposed that deficits in sensory functioning explain age differences in a variety of cognitive abilities ( 1997 ) Not surprisingly , more years of education , and subsequently higher income , are associated with the higher cognitive level and slower cognitive decline ( Stern , Manly , 2015 ) Figure Intelligence and Wisdom When looking at scores on traditional intelligence tests , tasks measuring verbal skills show minimal or no declines , Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1205

while scores on performance tests , which measure solving problems quickly , decline with age ( 1984 ) This profile mirrors crystallized and fluid intelligence . As you recall from the last chapter , crystallized intelligence encompasses abilities that draw upon experience and knowledge . Measures of crystallized intelligence include vocabulary tests , solving number problems , and understanding texts . Fluid intelligence refers to information processing abilities , such as logical reasoning , remembering lists , spatial ability , and reaction time . 1993 ) introduced two additional types of intelligence to reflect cognitive changes in aging . Pragmatics of intelligence are cultural exposure to facts and procedures that are maintained as one age and are similar to crystallized intelligence . Mechanics of intelligence are dependent on brain functioning and decline with age , similar to intelligence . indicated that pragmatics of intelligence show a little decline and typically increase with age . Additionally , the pragmatics of intelligence may compensate for the declines that occur with the mechanics of intelligence . In summary , global cognitive declines are not as typical as one age , and individuals compensate for some cognitive declines , especially processing speed . Wisdom is the ability to use accumulated knowledge about practical matters that allow for sound judgment and decision making . A wise person is insightful and has knowledge that can be used to overcome obstacles in living . Does aging bring wisdom ?

While living longer brings experience , it does not always bring wisdom . Paul and his colleagues ( 2004 , 2000 ) suggest that wisdom is rare . In addition , the emergence of wisdom can be seen in late adolescence and young adulthood , with there being few gains in wisdom over the course of adulthood ( Gluck , 2011 ) This would suggest that factors other than age are stronger of wisdom . Occupations and experiences that emphasize others rather than self , along with personality characteristics , such as openness to experience and , are more likely to provide the building 1206 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

blocks of wisdom ( 2004 ) Age combined with certain types of experience personality brings wisdom . Disorders Historically , the term dementia was used to refer to an individual experiencing difficulties with memory , language , abstract thinking , reasoning , decision making , and ( 2015 ) However , in the latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition ( American Psychiatric Association , 2013 ) the term dementia has been replaced by the disorder . A major disorder is diagnosed as a significant cognitive decline from a previous level of performance in one or more cognitive domains and interferes with independent functioning , while a minor disorder is diagnosed as a modest cognitive decline from a previous level of performance in one or more cognitive domains and does not interfere with independent functioning . There are several different disorders that are typically demonstrated in late adulthood and determining the exact type can be difficult because the symptoms may overlap with each other . Diagnosis often includes a medical history , physical exam , laboratory tests , and changes noted in behavior . disease , vascular disorder and disorder with bodies will be discussed below . Disease Probably the most and most common disorder for older individuals is disease . In 2016 an estimated million Americans were diagnosed with disease ( Association , 2016 ) which was approximately one in nine aged 65 and over . By 2050 the number of people age 65 and older with disease is projected to be million if there are no medical breakthroughs to prevent or cure the disease . disease Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1207

is the leading cause of death in the United States , but the leading cause for those 65 and older . Among the top 10 causes of death in America , disease is the only one that can not be prevented , cured , or even slowed . Current estimates indicate that disease affects approximately 50 of those identified with a disorder ( Cohen , 2011 ) mun . THE but disease has a gradual onset with subtle personality changes and memory loss that differs from normal memory problems occurring first . Confusion , difficulty with change , and deterioration in language , skills , and personality become evident next . In the later stages , the individual loses physical coordination and is unable to complete everyday tasks , including and personal hygiene ( 2015 ) Lastly , individuals lose the ability to respond to their environment , to carry on a conversation , and eventually to control movement ( Association , 2016 ) On average people with survive eight years , but some may live up to 20 years . The disease course often depends on the individuals age and whether they have other health conditions . The greatest risk factor for disease is age , but there are genetic and environmental factors that can also contribute . Some forms of are hereditary , and with the early onset type , several rare genes have been identified that directly cause 1208 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

. People who inherit these genes tend to develop symptoms in their , and . Five percent of those identified with disease are younger than age 65 . When disease is caused by deterministic genes , it is called familial disease ( Association , 2016 ) Traumatic brain injury is also a risk factor , as well as obesity , hypertension , high cholesterol , and diabetes ( 2011 ) Beta and Tau According to and ( 2015 ) the problems that occur with disease are due to the death of neurons , the breakdown of connections between them , and the extensive formation of plaques and tau , which interfere with neuron functioning and neuron survival ( 50 ) Plaques are abnormal formations of protein pieces called . amyloid comes from a larger protein found in the fatty membrane surrounding nerve cells . Because is sticky , it builds up into plaques ( Association , 2016 ) These plaques appear to block cell communication and may also trigger an inflammatory response in the immune system , which leads to further neuronal death . Tau is an important protein that helps maintain the transport system . When tau malfunctions , it changes into twisted strands called tangles that disrupt the transport system . Consequently , nutrients and other supplies can not move through the cells and they eventually die . The death of neurons leads to the brain shrinking and affecting all aspects of brain functioning . For example , the hippocampus is involved in learning and memory , and the brain cells in this region are often the first to be damaged . This is why memory loss is often one of the earliest symptoms of disease . Figures 932 and illustrate the difference between an brain and a healthy brain . Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1209

Figure Plaques and Healthy Severe Brain AD Washington University School of Medicine ( 2019 ) reported that researchers associated with the School of Medicine discovered that failing immune cells , known as microglia , appear to be the link between amyloid and tau , which are the two damaging proteins of disease . Amyloid plaques , which appear first , do not cause , but the presence of amyloid leads to the 1210 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

formation of tau tangles , which are responsible for the memory loss and cognitive deficits seen in those with disease . It appears that weakening microglia causes the amyloid plaques to injure nearby neurons , thus creating a toxic environment that increases the formation and spread of tau tangles . These findings could lead to a new approach for developing therapies for . Sleep Deprivation and Studies suggest that sleep plays a role in clearing both and tau out of the brain . et al . 2018 ) scanned participants brains after getting a full night rest and after 31 hours without sleep . increased by about in the participants brains after losing a night of sleep . These changes occurred in brain regions that included the thalamus and hippocampus , which are associated with the early stages of disease . et al . also found that participants with the largest increases in reported the worst mood after sleep deprivation . These findings support other studies that have found that the hippocampus and thalamus are involved in mood disorders . Additionally , et al . 2019 ) found that healthy adults who remained awake all day and night had tau levels that were elevated by about 50 percent . Once tau begins to accumulate in brain tissue , the protein can spread from one brain area to the next along with neural connections . et al . also found that older people who had more tau tangles in their brains by PET scanning had a less , deep sleep . et al . concluded that good sleep habits treatments designed to encourage plenty of sleep might play an important role in slowing disease . In contrast , poor sleep might worsen the condition and serve as an early warning sign of disease . Healthy Lifestyle Combats and colleagues with the Rush University Medical Center in Chicago examined how healthy lifestyle mitigates the risk of disease ( 2019 ) The researchers followed a diverse group of 2765 participants for years and focused on five lifestyle factors healthy Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1211

diet , at least 150 of moderate to vigorous physical activity , not smoking , light to moderate alcohol intake , and engaging in cognitively stimulating activities . Results indicated that those who adopted four or five lifestyle factors had a 60 lower risk of disease when compared with participants who did not follow any or only one of the factors . The authors concluded that incorporating these lifestyle changes can have a positive effect on ones brain functioning and lower the risk for disease . Vascular Disorder is the second most common disorder affecting in the years age group and 16 of individuals 80 years and older ( American Psychiatric Association , 2013 ) The vascular disorder is associated with a blockage of cerebral blood vessels that affects one part of the brain rather than a general loss of brain cells seen with disease . Personality is not as affected in vascular disorder , and more males are diagnosed than females ( and , 2015 ) It also comes on more abruptly than disease and has a shorter course before death . Risk factors include smoking , diabetes , heart disease , hypertension , or a history of strokes . Disorder with bodies According to the 1212 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

National Institute on Aging ( bodies are microscopic protein deposits found in neurons seen postmortem . They affect chemicals in the brain that can lead to difficulties in thinking , movement , behavior , and mood . Disorder with bodies is the third most common form and affects more than million Americans . It typically begins at age 50 or older and appears to affect slightly more men than women . The disease lasts approximately to years from the time of diagnosis to death but can range from to 20 years depending on the individuals age , health , and severity of symptoms . bodies can occur in both the cortex and brain stem which results in cognitive as well as motor symptoms ( 2015 ) The movement symptoms are similar to those with disease and include tremors and muscle rigidity . However , the motor disturbances occur at the same time as the cognitive symptoms , unlike disease when the cognitive symptoms occur well after the motor symptoms . Individuals diagnosed with Disorder with bodies also experience sleep disturbances , recurrent visual hallucinations , and are at risk for falling . Work , Retirement , and Leisure Work According to the United States Census Bureau , in 1994 , approximately 12 of those employed were 65 and over , and by 2016 , the percentage had increased to 18 of those employed ( 2019 ) Looking more closely at the age ranges , more than 40 of Americans in their are still working , while 14 of people in their and just of those 80 and older are currently employed ( 2019 ) Even though they make up a smaller number of workers overall , those to and older age groups are projected to have the fastest rates of growth in the next decade . See Figure for the projected annual growth rate in the labor force by age in percentages , Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1213

Figure Labor Growth by Age Group ( 2019 ) reported that similar to other age groups , those with higher levels of education are more likely to be employed . Approximately 37 of adults who are 60 and older and have a bachelors degree or more are working . In contrast , 31 with some college experience and 21 of those with a high school diploma or less are still working at age 60 and beyond . Additionally , men 60 and older are more likely to be working than women ( 33 24 ) Not only are older persons working more , but they are also earning more than previously , and their growth in earnings is greater compared to workers of other ages ( 2019 ) Older adults are proving just as capable as younger adults at the workplace . In fact , jobs that require social skills , accumulated knowledge , and relevant experiences favor older adults ( 2015 ) Older adults also demonstrate lower rates of absenteeism and greater investment in their work . Transitioning into Retirement For most Americans , retirement 1214 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

is a process and not a event ( Quinn Cahill , 2016 ) Sixty percent of workers transition straight to bridge jobs , which are often and occur between a career and full retirement . About 15 of workers get another job after being fully retired . This may be due to not having adequate finances after retirement or not enjoying their retirement . Some of these jobs may be in encore careers or work in a different field from the one in which they retired . Approximately 10 of workers begin phasing into retirement by reducing their hours . However , not all employers will allow this due to pension regulations . Retirement age changes Looking at retirement data , the average age of retirement declined from more than 70 in 1910 to age 63 in the early . However , this trend has reversed and the current average age is now 65 . Additionally , of those over the age of 65 continue to work ( US Department of Health and Human Services , 2012 ) compared with only 12 in 1990 ( Government Accountability Office , 2011 ) With individuals living longer , once retired the average amount of time a retired worker collects social security is approximately years ( James , 2016 ) When to retire Laws often influence when someone decides to retire . In 1986 the Age Discrimination in Employment Act ( was amended , and mandatory retirement was eliminated for most workers ( 2015 ) Pilots , air traffic controllers , federal law enforcement , national park rangers , and firefighters continue to have enforced retirement ages . Consequently , for most workers , they can continue to work if they choose and are able . Social security benefits also play a role . For those born before 1938 , they can receive full social security benefits at age 65 . For those born between 1943 and 1954 , they must wait until age 66 for full benefits , and for those born after 1959 , they must wait until age 67 ( Social Security Administration , 2016 ) Extra months are added to those born in years between . For example , if born in 1957 , the person must wait until 66 years and months . The longer one waits to receive social security , the more money will be paid out . Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1215

Those retiring at age 62 , will only receive 75 of their monthly benefits . Medicare health insurance is another entitlement that is not available until one is aged 65 . Delayed Retirement Older adults primarily choose to delay retirement due to economic reasons ( 2015 ) Financially , continuing to work provides not only added income but also does not dip into retirement savings which may not be sufficient . Historically , there have been three parts to retirement income that is , social security , a pension plan , and individual savings ( Quinn Cahill , 2016 ) With the 2008 recession , pension plans lost value for most workers . Consequently , many older workers have had to work later in life to compensate for absent or minimal pension plans and personal savings . Social security was never intended to replace full income , and the benefits provided may not cover all the expenses , so elders continue to work . Unfortunately , many older individuals are unable to secure later employment , and those especially vulnerable include persons with disabilities , single women , the old , and individuals with intermittent work histories . 1216 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

Some older adults delay retirement for psychological reasons , such as health benefits and social contacts . Recent research indicates that delaying retirement has been associated with helping one live longer . When looking at both healthy and unhealthy retirees , a year delay in retiring was associated with a decreased risk of death from all causes ( Wu , Fisher , 2016 ) When individuals are forced to retire due to health concerns or downsizing , they are more likely to have negative physical and psychological consequences ( 2015 ) Retirement Stages ( 1994 ) identified several phases that individuals go through when they retire Remote phase includes fantasizing about what one wants to do in retirement Immediate phase when concrete plans are established Actual retirement Honeymoon phase when retirees travel and participate in activities they could not do while working Disenchantment phase when retirees experience an emotional phase when the retirees attempt to adjust to retirement by making less hectic plans and getting into a regular routine Not everyone goes through every stage , but this model demonstrates that retirement is a process . Those who look most forward to retirement and have plans are those who anticipate adequate income ( 2015 ) This is especially true for males who have worked consistently and have a pension adequate savings . Once retired , staying active and socially engaged is important . Volunteering , and informal helping can keep seniors engaged . and ( 2008 ) found that 70 of retirees who are not involved in productive activities spent most Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1217

of their time watching , which is correlated with negative affect . In contrast , being productive improves . Elder Education Attending college is not just for the young as discussed in the previous chapter . There are many reasons why someone in late adulthood chooses to attend college . ure Financial Services surveyed retirees aged 70 and over and found that 58 indicated that they had retired before they had planned ( Holland , 2014 ) Many of these individuals chose to pursue additional training to improve skills to return to work in a second career . Others may be looking to take their career in a new direction . For some older students who no longer are focus on financial reasons , returning to school is intended to enable them to pursue work that is personally fulfilling . Attending college in late adulthood is also a great way for seniors to stay young and keep their minds sharp . Even if an elder chooses not to attend college for a degree , there are many continuing education programs on topics of interest available . In 1975 , a nonprofit educational travel organization called began in New with five 1218 Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

programs for several hundred retired participants ( 2015 ) This program combined college classroom time with travel tours and experiential learning experiences . In 2010 the organization changed its name to Road Scholar , and it now serves people per year in the US . and in 150 countries . Academic courses , as well as practical skills such as computer classes , foreign languages , budgeting , and holistic medicines , are among the courses offered . Older adults who have higher levels of education are more likely to take continuing education . However , offering more educational experiences to a diverse group of older adults , including those who are institutionalized in nursing homes , can bring enhance the quality of life . Leisure During the past 10 years , leisure time for Americans 60 and older has remained at about hours a day . However , the amount of time spent on , computers , tablets or other electronic devices has risen almost 30 minutes per day over the past decade ( 2019 ) Those 60 and older now spend more than half of their daily leisure time ( hours and 16 minutes ) in front of screens . Screen time has increased for those in their , and beyond , and across genders and education levels . This rise in screen time coincides with significant growth in the use of digital technology by older Americans . In 2000 , 14 of those aged 65 and older used the Internet , and now 73 are users and 53 own smartphones . Alternatively , the time spent on other recreational activities , such as reading or socializing , has gone down slightly . People with less education spend more of their leisure time on screens and less time reading compared with those with more education . adults also spend less time exercising 12 minutes a day for those with a high school diploma or less , compared with 26 minutes for college graduates . Chapter 29 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 1219

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