Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part XI Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood Describe crystallized versus intelligence Describe research from the Seattle Longitudinal Study Explain the importance of flow to creativity and life satisfaction Describe how middle adults are turning to college for advanced training Describe the difference between an expert and a novice Describe the changes in the workforce , especially among middle adults Explain the importance of leisure to mental health and a successful retirement Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood 1023

Versus Fluid Intelligence Intelligence is influenced by heredity , culture , social , personal choices , and certainly age . One distinction in specific intelligence noted in adulthood is between fluid intelligence , which refers to the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems and performing activities quickly and abstractly and crystallized intelligence , which refers to the accumulated knowledge of the world we have acquired throughout our lives ( Salthouse , 2004 ) This intelligence is distinct , and crystallized intelligence increases with age , while fluid intelligence tends to decrease with age ( 1981 Salthouse , 2004 ) Research demonstrates that older adults have more crystallized intelligence as reflected in semantic knowledge , vocabulary , and language . As a result , adults generally outperform younger people on measures of history , geography , and even on crossword puzzles , where this information is useful ( Salthouse , 2004 ) It is this superior knowledge , combined with a slower and more complete processing style , along with a more sophisticated understanding of the workings of the world around them , that gives older adults the advantage of wisdom over the advantages of fluid intelligence which favors the young ( 1999 , 2009 ) 1024 Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

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Fluid and Anus the in Inns Mun nun a The differential changes in crystallized versus fluid intelligence help explain why older adults do not necessarily show poorer performance on tasks that also require experience ( ie , crystallized intelligence ) although they show poorer memory overall . A young chess player may think more quickly , for instance , but a more experienced chess player has more knowledge to draw on . Seattle Longitudinal Study The Seattle Longitudinal Study has tracked the cognitive abilities of adults since 1956 . Every seven years the current participants are evaluated , and new individuals are also added . Approximately 6000 people have participated thus far , and 26 people from the original group are still in the study today . Current results demonstrate that adults perform better on four out of six cognitive tasks than those same individuals did when they were young adults . Verbal memory , spatial skills , inductive reasoning ( from particular examples ) and vocabulary increase with age until one ( 2005 Willis . 1999 ) However , numerical computation and perceptual speed decline in middle and late adulthood ( see Figure 818 ) Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood 1025

nu sunk Mud ) 29 , mam A ' no . 13 gon na . Cognitive skills in the aging brain have been studied extensively in pilots , and similar to the Seattle Longitudinal Study results , older pilots show declines in processing speed and memory capacity , but their overall performance seems to remain intact . According to Phillips ( 2011 ) researchers tested pilots age 40 to 69 as they performed on flight simulators . Older pilots took longer to learn to use the simulators but performed better than younger pilots at avoiding collisions . Flow is the mental state of being completely present and fully absorbed in a task ( 1990 ) When in a state of flow , the individual is able to block outside distractions and the mind is fully open to producing . Additionally , the person is achieving great joy or intellectual satisfaction from the activity and accomplishing a goal . Further , when in a state of flow , the individual is not concerned with extrinsic rewards . 1996 ) used his theory of flow to research how some people exhibit high levels of creativity as he believed that a state of flow is an important factor in creativity ( 2016 ) Other characteristics of creative people identified by ( 1996 ) include curiosity and drive , value for intellectual endeavors , and an ability to lose our sense of self and feel a part of something greater . In addition , he believed that the tortured creative person was a myth and that creative 1026 Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

people were very happy with their lives . According to Nakamura and ( 2002 ) people describe flow as the height of enjoyment . The more they experience it , the more they judge their lives to be gratifying . The qualities that allow for flow are developed in middle adulthood . Tacit knowledge is the knowledge that is pragmatic or practical and learned through experience rather than explicitly taught , and it also increases with age ( 2002 ) Tacit knowledge might be thought of as or professional It is referred to as tacit because it can not be codified or written down . It does not involve academic knowledge , rather it involves being able to use skills and to in practical ways . Tacit knowledge can be understood in the workplace and used by workers , such as carpenters , chefs , and hairdressers . Middle Adults Returning to Education Midlife adults in the United States often find themselves in college classrooms . In fact , the rate of enrollment for older Americans entering college , often or in the evenings , is rising faster than traditionally aged students . Students over age 35 , accounted for 17 of all college and graduate students in 2009 , and are expected to comprise 19 of that total by 2020 ( Holland , 2014 ) In some cases , older students are developing skills and expertise in order to launch a second career or to take their career in a new direction . Whether they enroll in school to sharpen particular skills , to retool and reenter the workplace , or to pursue interests that have previously been neglected , older students tend to approach the learning process differently than younger college students ( Knowles , 1998 ) The mechanics of cognition , such as working memory and speed of Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood 1027

processing , gradually decline with age . However , they can be easily compensated for through the use of cognitive skills , such as forming strategies to enhance memory or summarizing and comparing ideas rather than relying on rote memorization ( 2004 ) Although older students may take a bit longer to learn the material , they are less likely to forget it quickly . Adult learners tend to look for relevance and meaning when learning information . Older adults have the hardest time learning material that is meaningless or unfamiliar . They are more likely to ask themselves , Why is this important ?

when being introduced to information or when trying to memorize concepts or facts . Older adults are more learners and want to organize their activity around . Rubin et al . 2018 ) surveyed university students aged regarding their satisfaction and approach to learning in college . Results indicated that older students were more independent , inquisitive , and motivated intrinsically compared to younger students . Additionally , older women processed information at a deeper learning level and expressed more satisfaction with their education . To address the educational needs of those over 50 , The American Association of Community Colleges ( 2016 ) developed the Plus 50 Initiative that assists community college in creating or expanding programs that focus on workforce training and new careers for the population . Since 2008 the program has provided grants for programs to 138 community colleges affecting over 37 , 000 students . The participating colleges offer workforce training programs that prepare 50 plus adults for careers in such fields as early childhood educators , certified nursing assistants , substance abuse counselors , adult basic education instructors , and human resources specialists . These training programs are especially beneficial as 80 of people over the age of 50 say they will retire later in life than their parents or continue to work in retirement , including in a new field . 1028 Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

Gaining Expertise The Novice and the Expert Expertise refers to specialized skills and knowledge that pertain to a particular topic or activity . In contrast , a novice is someone who has limited experiences with a particular task . Everyone develops some level of selective expertise in things that are personally meaningful to them , such as making bread , quilting , computer programming , or diagnosing illness . Expert thought is often characterized as intuitive , automatic , strategic , and flexible . Intuitive Novices follow particular steps and rules when , whereas experts can call upon a vast amount of knowledge and past experience . As a result , their actions appear more intuitive than formulaic . Novice cooks may slavishly follow the recipe step by step , while chefs may glance at recipes for ideas and then follow their own procedure . Automatic Complex thoughts and actions become more routine for experts . Their reactions appear instinctive over time , and this is because expertise allows us to process information faster and more effectively ( Crawford , 2002 ) Strategic Experts have more effective strategies than experts . For instance , while both skilled and novice doctors generate several hypotheses within minutes of an encounter with a patient , the more skilled conclusions are likely to be more accurate . In other words , they generate better hypotheses than the novice . This is because they are able to discount misleading symptoms and other and hone in on the most likely problem the patient is experiencing ( Norman , 2005 ) Consider how your skills may have changed after being in school over a number of years . Chances are you do not write down everything the instructor says , but the more central ideas . You may have even come up with your own short forms for commonly mentioned Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood I 1029

words in a course , allowing you to take down notes faster and more efficiently than someone who may be a novice academic note taker . Flexible Experts in all fields are more curious and creative they enjoy a challenge and experiment with new ideas or procedures . The only way for experts to grow in their knowledge is to take on more challenging , rather than routine tasks . Expertise takes time . It is a resulting from experience and practice ( 2006 ) adults , with their store of knowledge and experience , are likely to find that when faced with a problem they have likely faced something similar before . This allows them to ignore the irrelevant and focus on the important aspects of the issue . Expertise is one reason why many people often reach the top of their careers in middle adulthood . However , expertise can not fully for all losses in general cognitive functioning as we age . The superior performance of older adults in comparison to younger novices appears to be ( 2006 ) As we age , we also need to be more deliberate in our practice of skills in order to maintain them . and ( 2006 ) in their review of the literature on aging and expertise , also note that the rate of return for our effort diminishes as we age . In other words , increasing practice does not recoup the same advances in older adults as similar efforts do at younger ages . Work at Midlife Who is the workforce ?

The civilian , workforce the population of those aged 16 and older , who are employed has steadily declined since it reached its peak in the late 1030 Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood when 67 of the civilian workforce population was employed . In 2012 the rate had dropped to 64 and by 2019 it declined to ( Bureau of Labor Statistics , 2019 ) The US . population is expected to grow more slowly based on census projections for the next few years . Those new entrants to the labor force , adults age 16 to 24 , are the only population of adults that will shrink in size over the next few years by nearly half a percent , while those age 55 and up will grow by over current rates , and those age 65 to 74 will grow by nearly ( Monthly Labor Review ( 2013 ) In 1992 , 26 of the population was , by 2022 it is projected to be 38 . Table shows the rates of employment by age . In 2002 , baby boomers were between the ages of 38 to 56 , the prime employment group . In 2012 , the youngest baby boomers were 48 and the oldest had just retired ( age 66 ) These changes might explain some of the steady declines in work participation as this large population cohort ages out of the workforce . In 2012 , 53 of the workforce was male . For both genders and for most age groups the rate of participation in the labor force has declined from 2002 to 2012 , and it is projected to decline further by 2022 . The exception is among the older groups ( the baby boomers ) and especially for women 55 and older . 01 be Indian I gon na A age . III III zur III II ) 27 I 41 I as In on on III 75 ! I . In an ) Its not as I Tu III II ma nu an . 51 A no so I 59 A MI in an an so ! Hispanic males have the highest rate of participation in the labor Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood 1031

force . In 2012 , 76 of Hispanic males , compared with 71 of White , 72 of Asians , and 64 of Black men ages 16 or older were employed . Among women , Black women were more likely to be participating in the workforce ( 58 ) compared with almost 57 of Hispanic and Asian , and 55 of White females . The rates for all racial and ethnic groups are expected to decline by 2022 ( 2013 ) Climate in the Workplace for Adults A number of studies have found that job satisfaction tends to peak in middle adulthood ( Brown , 2013 , 2006 ) This satisfaction stems from not only higher wages , but often greater involvement in decisions that affect the workplace as they move from worker to supervisor or manager . Job satisfaction is also influenced by being able to do the job well , and after years of experience at a job , many people are more effective and productive . Another reason for this peak in job satisfaction is that at midlife many adults lower their expectations and goals ( Thomas , 2003 ) employees may realize they have reached the highest they are likely to in their careers . This satisfaction at work translates into lower absenteeism , greater productivity , and less in comparison to younger adults ( 2006 ) However , not all adults are happy in the workplace . Women may find themselves up against the glass ceiling . This may explain why females employed at large corporations are twice as likely to quit their jobs as are men ( Ryan , 2009 ) Another problem older workers may encounter is job burnout , defined as unsuccessfully managed workplace stress ( World Health Organization , 2019 ) Burnout consists of Feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion Increased mental distance from one job , or feelings of job negativism or cynicism Reduced professional efficacy 1032 Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

American workers may experience more burnout than do workers in many other developed nations because most developed nations guarantee by law a set number of paid vacation days ( International Labour Organization , 2011 ) the United States does not ( Department of Labor , 2016 ) Figure Avenge Hun Actually per Worker lot ) 1706 1457 us ) 117 , 171 ' Sweden 1511 , 1975 , 1574 ' II ' II . Not all employees are covered under overtime pay laws ( Department of Labor , 2016 ) This is important when you considered that the is a myth for most Americans . Only in 10 workers work the typical . The average for many is almost a full day longer ( 47 hours ) with 39 working 50 or more hours per week ( 2014 ) In comparison to workers in many other developed nations , American workers work more hours per year ( Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development , 2016 ) As can be seen in Figure , Americans work more hours than most European nations , especially western Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood 1033

and northern Europe , although they work fewer hours than workers in other nations , especially Mexico . Challenges in the Workplace for Adults In recent years adults have been challenged by economic , starting in 2001 , and again in 2008 . percent of adults reported some problems in the workplace , such as fewer hours , having to switch to , during the most recent economic recession ( see Figure , Pew Research Center , While young adults took the biggest hit in terms of levels of unemployment , adults also saw their overall financial resources suffer as their retirement nest eggs disappeared and house values shrank , while foreclosures increased ( Pew Research Center , Not surprisingly this age group reported that the recession hit them worse than did other age groups , especially those aged . adults who find themselves unemployed are likely to remain unemployed longer than those in early adulthood ( US . Government Accountability Office , 2012 ) In the eyes of employers , it may be more to hire a young adult , despite their limited experience , as they would be starting out at lower levels of the pay scale . In addition , hiring someone who is 25 and has many years of work ahead of them versus someone who is 55 and will likely retire in 10 years may also be part of the decision to hire a younger worker ( 2004 ) American workers are also competing with global markets and changes in technology . Those who are able to keep up with all these changes or are willing to uproot and move around the country or even the world have a better chance of finding work . The decision to move may be easier for people who are younger and have fewer obligations to others . 1034 Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

The at was , mid far ( In ) nu visas . Leisure As most developed nations restrict the number of hours an employer can demand that an employee work per week , and require Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood 1035 employers to offer paid vacation time , what do adults do with their time off from work and duties , referred to as leisure ?

Around the world , the most common leisure activity in both early and middle adulthood is watching television ( Marketing Charts Staff , 2014 ) On average , adults spend hours per day watching ( 2007 ) and watching accounts for more than half of all the leisure time ( see Figure ) nun nu pot nu um . um upon um . nu In the United States , men spend about hours more per week in leisure activities , especially on weekends , than do women ( Drake , 2013 US . Bureau of Labor Statistics , 2016 ) The leisure gap between mothers and fathers is slightly smaller , about hours a week , than among those without children under age 18 ( Drake , 2013 ) Those age spend less time on leisure activities than any other age group , 15 or older ( US . Bureau of Labor Statistics , 2016 ) This is not surprising as this age group is more likely to be parents and still working up the ladder of their career , so they may feel they have less time for leisure . 1036 Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

Americans have less leisure time than people in many other developed nations . As you read earlier , there are no laws in many job sectors guaranteeing paid vacation time in the United States ( see Figure ) Ray , and ( 2013 ) report that several other nations also provide additional time off for young and older workers and for shift workers . In the United States , those in jobs and jobs covered by a union contract are more likely to have paid vacation time and holidays ( Ray . 2007 ) I Tim ! But do US . workers take their time off ?

According to Project ( 2016 ) 55 of US . workers in 2015 did not take all of their paid vacation and holiday leave . A large percentage of this leave is lost . It can not be rolled over into the next year or paid out . A total of 658 million vacation days or an average of vacation days per worker was lost in 2015 . The reasons most often given for not taking time off was worry that there would be a mountain of work to return to ( 40 ) a concern that no one else could do the job ( 35 ) not being able to afford a vacation ( 33 ) feeling it was harder to take time away when you have or are moving up in the company ( 33 ) and not wanting to seem replaceable ( 22 ) Since 2000 , more American workers are willing to work for free rather Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood 1037

than take the time that is allowed to them . A lack of support from their boss and even their colleagues to take a vacation is often a driving force in deciding to forgo time off . In fact , 80 of the respondents to the survey above said they would take time away if they felt they had support from their boss . reported that they hear nothing , mixed messages , or discouraging remarks about taking their time off . Almost a third ( 31 ) feel they should contact their workplace , even while on vacation . The benefits of taking time away from work Several studies have noted the benefits of taking time away from work . It reduces job stress burnout ( Nimrod , 2012 ) improves both mental health ( Qian , Almeida , 2013 ) and physical health ( Stern , 2009 ) especially if that leisure time also includes moderate physical activity ( Lee et , 2015 ) Leisure activities can also improve productivity and job satisfaction ( 2011 ) and help adults deal with balancing family and work obligations ( Lee , et , 2015 ) References . 2009 ) The divorce experience A study of divorce at midlife and beyond . Washington , A . 2009 ) Perception of marital quality by parents with small children A study when the firstborn is years old . of Family Nursing , 15 , A . 2013 ) Relationship goals of , and Internet An analysis of online personal ads . of Aging Studies , 27 , American Association of Community Colleges ( 2016 ) Plus 50 community colleges Ageless learning . Retrieved from Pa es 1038 Chapter 26 Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

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