Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part X Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

PART DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD Learning Objectives I Explore and connect Psychosocial , Cognitive , and Psychosexual Development I Explore and connect another Theory , Approach , or Perspective to work in critical thinking skills for client assessments I Exploring important aspects of a experience and ability to justify why they are important Development in 811

Vignette Don Stephens , 25 , and Keith James , 33 , have been together for years . They married last year when New York legalized same sex marriages through and are now planning to be for the first time this fall . They decided they wanted to expand their family shortly after getting married and found a surrogate , Paige , who is now months pregnant with twins . While they are ecstatic , Don and Keith are both starting to experience anxiety about what it , Photo by Shelby on will be like to be parents . They do not have financial concerns but are struggling more with the uncertainties of the future Will they be good ?

Will they be able to for TWO babies at once ?

Will their children face hardships due to having gay ?

They have decided to begin therapy with Licensed Certified Social Worker ( for some support . She greets them warmly asks what brings them in to see her . Don and Keith share their story uncertainties related to becoming fathers . Don shares some of his childhood experiences with his own father , who was verbally abusive , and fears he will be just like my dad , because all I know , I mean , can you even be good father when you didn have one yourself ?

How will I know what to do ?

I have my dads temper and I afraid it going to come out if I get mad that the last thing I , my kids to fear me or me say something I don mean and then I ruin them . I also not working right now . I 812 Development in Early Adulthood planning to go to graduate school , but still not sure about what I really want to do . Keith shares his fears are more related to societal views and responses to their family . He states Its hard being a gay man or couple sometimes , I see the way some people look at us when we walk by and thats so hard in itself some days , I cant imagine how much more it will hurt when we have our children . It keeps me up at night thinking about how our children may be treated simply because of who their parents are or what their family looks like . Critical Thinking . What stage of Theory of Psychosocial Development are they currently in ?

Are they meeting the goals of this stage ?

Examples ?

Are they demonstrating any struggles with their goals in this stage ?

Examples ?

What theory , approach , or perspective from previous Dimensions ( PIE , Sociocultural , or Social Change ) would you use to assess this client ?

Why ?

What do you feel are the most important aspects ( physical development , attachment , sexual development , etc ) to consider for this client ?

Why ?

Development in Early Adulthood 813 References , 2019 ) Dimensions of human behavior ( Sixth edition ) Sage Publications , 814 Development in Early Adulthood Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood Summarize the overall physical growth in early adulthood Describe statistics , possible causes , and consequences of obesity Explain how early adulthood is a healthy , yet risky time of life Identify the risk factors for substance use Describe the changes in brain maturation Describe gender in adulthood , including gender minorities and stress Define sexuality and explain the female and male reproductive systems Describe the brain areas and hormones responsible for sexual behavior Identify sexually transmitted infections Describe cultural views related to sexuality Describe research on sexual orientation Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 815

The Physiological Peak People in their to are considered to be in early adulthood . By the time we reach early adulthood , our physical maturation is complete , although our height and weight may increase slightly . Those in their early twenties are probably at the peak of their physiological development , including muscle strength , reaction time , sensory abilities , and cardiac functioning . The reproductive system , motor skills , strength , and lung capacity are all operating at their best . Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage , and many women have children in the years ( Boundless , 2016 ) The aging process actually begins during early adulthood . Around the age of 30 , many changes begin to occur in different parts of the body . For example , the lens of the eye starts to stiffen and thicken , resulting in changes in vision ( usually affecting the ability to focus on close objects ) Sensitivity to sound decreases this happens twice as quickly for men as for women . Hair can start to thin and become gray around the age of 35 , although this may happen earlier for some individuals and later for others . The skin becomes drier and wrinkles start to appear by the end of early adulthood . This includes a decline in response time and the ability to recover quickly from physical exertion . The immune system also becomes less adept at fighting off illness , and reproductive capacity starts to decline ( Boundless , 2016 ) Obesity Although at the peak of physical health , a concern for early adults is the current rate of obesity . Results from the National Center for Health Statistics indicated that an estimated of US . adults 816 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

aged 20 and over were overweight in 2012 ( and by 2016 , were considered obese ( Carroll , Ogden , 2017 ) Body mass index ( expressed weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared ( is commonly used to classify overweight ( obesity ( greater than or equal to ) and extreme obesity ( greater than or equal to ) The current statistics are an increase from the statistics that indicated that an estimated were obese , and extremely obese ( Carroll , Ogden , 2014 ) The also indicated that one are the prime time to gain weight as the average person gains one to two pounds per year from early adulthood into middle adulthood . The average man in his weighs around 185 pounds and by his weighs approximately 200 pounds . The average American woman weighs 162 pounds in her and 170 pounds in her . The American obesity crisis is also reflected worldwide ( 2016 ) In 2014 , global obesity rates for men were measured at and among women . This translates to 266 million obese men and 375 million obese women in the world , and more people were identified as obese than underweight . Although obesity is seen throughout the world , more obese men and women live in China and the USA than in any other country . Figure illustrates how waist circumference is also used as a measure of obesity . Figure demonstrates the percentage growth for youth ( years ) and adults ( years ) identified as obese between 1999 and 2016 . Figure Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 817

Figure Waist Circumference ! mun ' Causes of Obesity According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( 2016 ) obesity originates from a complex set of contributing factors , including ones environment , behavior , and genetics . Societal factors include culture , education , food marketing and promotion , the quality of food , and the physical activity environment available . Behaviors leading to obesity include diet , the amount of physical activity , and medication use . Lastly , there does not appear to be a single gene responsible for obesity . Rather , research has identified variants in several genes that may contribute to obesity by increasing hunger and food intake . Another genetic explanation is the mismatch between today environment and genes that multiplied in the distant past when food sources were unpredictable . The genes that helped our ancestors survive occasional famines are now being challenged by environments in which food is plentiful all the time . Overall , obesity most likely results from complex interactions among the environment and multiple genes . Figure 818 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

and ) Frau Obesity Health Consequences Obesity is considered to be one of the leading causes of death in the United States and worldwide . Additionally , the medical care costs of obesity in the United States were estimated to be 147 billion in 2008 . According to the ( 2016 ) compared to those with a normal or healthy weight , people who are obese are at increased risk for many serious diseases and health conditions including of death ( mortality ) High blood pressure ( Hypertension ) High cholesterol , low cholesterol , or high levels of triglycerides ( Type diabetes Coronary heart disease Stroke Gallbladder disease Osteoarthritis ( a breakdown of cartilage and bone within a Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 819

joint ) Sleep apnea and breathing problems Some cancers ( endometrial , breast , colon , kidney , gallbladder , and liver ) Low quality of life Mental illness , such as clinical depression , anxiety , and other mental disorders Body pain and difficulty with physical functioning A Healthy , But Risky Time Doctor visits are less frequent in early adulthood than for those in midlife and late adulthood and are necessitated primarily by injury and pregnancy ( Berger , 2005 ) However , the top five causes of death in emerging and early are injury ( including motor vehicle accidents ) homicide , and suicide with cancer and heart disease completing the list ( Heron , Smith , 2007 ) Rates of violent death ( homicide , suicide , and accidents ) are highest among young adult males and vary by race and ethnicity . Rates of violent death are higher in the United States than in Canada , Mexico , Japan , and other selected countries . Males are times more likely to die in auto accidents than are females ( 2011 ) Alcohol Abuse A significant contributing factor to risky behavior is alcohol . According to 2014 , National Survey on Drug Use and Health ( National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism ( 2016 ) 88 of people ages 18 or older reported that they drank alcohol at some point in their lifetime 71 reported that they drank in the past year , and 57 reported drinking in the past month . Additionally , reported that they engaged in heavy drinking in the past month . Heavy drinking is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of five or more days in the past 30 days . Nearly people ( approximately men and women ) die from causes annually , making it 820 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

the fourth leading preventable cause of death in the United States . In 2014 , driving fatalities accounted for deaths ( 31 of overall driving fatalities ) The defines binge drinking when blood alcohol concentration levels reach . This typically occurs after four drinks for women and five drinks for men in approximately two hours . In 2014 , 25 of people ages 18 or older reported that they engaged in binge drinking in the past month . According to the ( 2015 ) Binge drinking poses serious health and safety risks , including car crashes , arrests , sexual assaults , and injuries . Over the long term , frequent binge drinking can damage the liver and other organs , Alcohol and College Students Results from the 2014 survey demonstrated a difference between the amount of alcohol consumed by college students and those of the same age who are not in college ( 2016 ) Specifically , 60 of college students ages drank alcohol in the past month compared with of other persons of the same age not in college . In addition , 38 of college students ages engaged in binge drinking that is , five or more drinks on one occasion in the past month , compared with of other persons of the same age . Lastly , 12 of college students ( ages ) engaged in heavy drinking that is , binge drinking on five or more occasions per month , in the past month . This compares with of other emerging adults not in college . The consequences for college drinking are staggering , and the ( 2016 ) estimates that each year the following occur college students between the ages of 18 and 24 die from unintentional injuries , including crashes . students between the ages of 18 and 24 are assaulted by another student who has been drinking . Roughly in college students meet the criteria for an Alcohol Use Disorder . About in college students report academic consequences Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood I 821

from drinking , inc missing class , falling behind in class , doing poorly on exams or papers , and receiving lower grades overall . students between the ages of 18 and 24 report experiencing alco sexual assault or date rape . The role alcohol plays in predicting acquaintance rape on college campuses is of particular concern . Alcohol use in one the strongest of rape sexual assault on college campuses , Carroll , 2016 , 454 ) Warner , Fisher and Martin ( 2009 ) found that over 80 sexual assaults on college campuses involved alcohol . Being intoxicated increases a female risk of being the victim of date or acquaintance rape ( Carroll , 2007 ) Females are more likely to blame and to be blamed by others if they were intoxicated when raped . College students view perpetrators who were drinking as less responsible , and victims who were drinking as more responsible for the assaults ( Untied , 2012 ) Factors Affecting College Students Drinking . Several factors associated with college life affect a student involvement with alcohol ( 2015 ) These include the pervasive availability of alcohol , inconsistent enforcement of underage drinking laws , unstructured time , coping with stressors , and limited interactions with parents and other adults . 822 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

Figure Due to social pressures to conform and expectations when entering college , the first six weeks of freshman year are an especially susceptible time for students . Additionally , more drinking occurs in colleges with active Greek systems and athletic programs . Alcohol consumption is lowest among students living with their families and commuting , while it is highest among those living in fraternities and sororities . College Strategies to Curb Drinking . Strategies to address college drinking involve the and campus community as a whole . Identifying groups , such as students , members of fraternities and sororities , and athletes have proven helpful in changing students knowledge , attitudes , and behavior regarding alcohol ( 2015 ) Interventions include education and awareness programs , as well as intervention by health professionals . At the , reducing the availability of alcohol has proven effective by decreasing both consumption and negative consequences . Substance Use Illicit drug use peaks between the ages of 19 and 22 and then begins to decline . Additionally , 25 of those Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 823

who smoke cigarettes , 33 of those who smoke marijuana , and 70 of those who abuse cocaine began using after age 17 ( 2004 ) Emerging adults ( 18 to 25 ) are the largest abusers of prescription opioid pain , medications , and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder medication ( National Institute on Drug Abuse , 2015 ) In 2016 , opioid misuse within the past 12 months was reported by of and was twice as high among those ( Office of Adolescent Health , 2019 ) In 2014 more than 1700 emerging adults died from a prescription drug overdose . This is an increase of four times since 1999 . Additionally , for every death , there were 119 emergency room visits . Daily marijuana use is at the highest level in three decades ( National Institute on Drug Abuse , 2015 ) For those in college , 2014 data indicate that of college students smoke marijuana daily , while only smoked daily in 1994 . For students of the same age , the daily percentage is twice as high ( approximately 12 ) Additionally , according to a recent survey by the National Institute of Drug Abuse ( 2018 ) daily cigarette smoking is lower for those in college in comparison to groups ( see Figure ) Figure 824 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

Figure HI , PAS ! AID US ! WIS AID ( CIGARETTE SMOKING . Rates of violent death are influenced by substance use which peaks during emerging and early adulthood . Drugs impair judgment , reduce inhibitions , and alter mood , all of which can lead to dangerous behavior . Reckless driving , violent altercations , and forced sexual encounters are some examples . Drug and alcohol use increase the risk of sexually transmitted infections because people are more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior when under the influence . This includes having sex with someone who has had multiple partners , having anal sex without the use of a condom , having multiple partners , or having sex with someone whose history is unknown . Lastly , as previously discussed , drugs and alcohol ingested during pregnancy have a teratogenic effect on the developing embryo and fetus . Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 825

Gender As previously discussed in chapter , gender is the cultural , social and psychological meanings associated with masculinity and feminity . A person sense of self as a member of a particular gender is known as gender identity . Because gender is considered a social construct , meaning that it does not exist naturally , but is instead a concept that is created by cultural and societal norms , there are cultural variations on how people express their gender identity . For example , in American culture , it is considered feminine to wear a dress or skirt . However , in many Middle Eastern , Asian , and African cultures , dresses or skirts ( often referred to as , robes , or gowns ) can be considered masculine . Similarly , the kilt worn by a Scottish male does not make him appear feminine in his culture . For many adults , the drive to adhere to masculine and feminine gender roles , or the societal expectations associated with being male or female , continues throughout life . In American culture , masculine roles have traditionally been associated with strength , aggression , and dominance , while feminine roles have traditionally been associated with passivity , nurturing , and subordination . Men tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement , the military , and politics , while women tend to outnumber men in related occupations such as childcare , healthcare , and social work . These occupational roles are examples of stereotypical American male and female behavior , derived not from biology or genetics , but from our cultures traditions . Adherence to these roles may demonstrate fulfillment of social expectations , however , not necessarily personal preferences ( Diamond , 2002 ) Consequently , many adults are challenging gender labels and roles , and the gender binary that is , categorizing humans as only female and male , has been undermined by current psychological research ( Hyde , Joel , Tate , van Anders , 2019 ) The term gender now encompasses a wide range of possible identities , including , transgender , 826 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

, gender nonconforming , and which is a modern umbrella term used by some indigenous North Americans to describe individuals in their communities ( Carroll , 2016 ) Hyde et al . 2019 ) advocate for a conception of gender that stresses multiplicity and diversity and uses multiple categories that are not mutually exclusive . Gender Minority Discrimination Gender nonconforming people are much more likely to experience harassment , bullying , and violence based on their gender identity they also experience much higher rates of discrimination in housing , employment , healthcare , and education ( 2019 National Center for Transgender Equality , 2015 ) Transgender individuals of color face additional financial , social , and interpersonal challenges , in comparison to the transgender community as a whole , as a result of structural racism . Black transgender people reported the highest level of discrimination among all transgender individuals of color . As members of several intersecting minority groups , transgender people of color , and transgender women of color , in particular , are especially vulnerable to employment discrimination , poor health outcomes , harassment , and violence . Consequently , they face even greater obstacles than white transgender individuals and members of their own race . Figure Flag Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 827

Gender Minority Status and Mental Health Using data from over college students , et al . 2019 ) examined mental health differences among several gender groups , including those identifying as , transgender and gender nonconforming . Results indicated that participants who identified as transgender and gender nonconforming had significantly higher levels of anxiety and depression than those identifying as . et al . explained the higher rates of anxiety and depression using the minority stress model , which states that an social environment results in both external and internal stress which contributes to poorer mental health . External stressors include discrimination , harassment , and prejudice , while internal stressors include negative thoughts , feelings , and emotions resulting from one identity . et al . recommend that mental health services that are sensitive to both gender minority and sexual minority status be available . Figure The transgender children discussed in chapter may , when they become an adult , alter their bodies through medical interventions , such as surgery and hormonal therapy so that their physical being is better aligned with gender identity . However , not all transgender individuals choose to alter their bodies or physically transition . 828 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

Many will maintain their original anatomy but may present themselves to society as a different gender , often by adopting the dress , hairstyle , mannerisms , or other characteristics typically assigned to a certain gender . It is important to note that people who or wear clothing that is traditionally assigned to the opposite gender , such as transvestites , drag kings , and drag queens , do not necessarily identify as transgender ( though some do ) People often confuse the term transvestite , which is the practice of dressing and acting in a style or manner traditionally associated with another sex ( APA , 2013 ) with transgender . is typically a form of , entertainment , or personal style , and not necessarily an expression about one gender identity . Sexuality Human sexuality refers to people sexual interest in and attraction to others , as well as their capacity to have erotic experiences and responses . Sexuality may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways , including thoughts , fantasies , desires , beliefs , attitudes , values , behaviors , practices , roles , and relationships . These may manifest themselves in biological , physical , emotional , social , or spiritual aspects . The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the human reproductive functions , including the human sexual response cycle and the basic biological drive that exists in all species . Emotional aspects of sexuality include bonds between individuals that are expressed through profound feelings or physical manifestations of love , trust , and care . Social aspects deal with the effects of human society on ones sexuality , while spirituality concerns an individual spiritual connection with others through sexuality . Sexuality also impacts and is impacted by cultural , political , legal , philosophical , moral , ethical , and religious aspects of life . Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 829

The Sexual Response Cycle Sexual motivation , often referred to as libido , is a persons overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity . This motivation is determined by biological , psychological , and social factors . In most mammalian species , sex hormones control the ability to engage in sexual behaviors . However , sex hormones do not directly regulate the ability to copulate in primates ( including humans ) rather , they are only one influence on the motivation to engage in sexual behaviors . Social factors , such as work and family , also have an impact , as do internal psychological factors like personality and stress . Sex drive may also be affected by hormones , medical conditions , medications , lifestyle stress , pregnancy , and relationship issues . The sexual response cycle is a model that describes the physiological responses that take place during sexual activity . According to , and Martin ( 1948 ) the cycle consists of four phases excitement , plateau , orgasm , and resolution . The excitement phase is the phase in which the intrinsic ( inner ) motivation to pursue sex arises . The plateau phase is the period of sexual excitement with increased heart rate and circulation that sets the stage for orgasm . Orgasm is the release of tension , and the resolution period is the unaroused state before the cycle begins again . The Brain and Sex The brain is the structure that translates the nerve impulses from the skin into pleasurable sensations . controls the nerves and muscles used during sexual behavior . The brain regulates the release of hormones , which are believed to be the physiological origin of sexual desire . The cerebral cortex , which is the outer layer of the brain that allows for thinking and reasoning , is believed to be the origin of sexual thoughts and fantasies . Beneath the cortex is the limbic system , which consists of the amygdala , hippocampus , cingulate gyrus , and septal area . These structures are where emotions and feelings are believed to originate , and they are important for sexual behavior . The hypothalamus is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning . This is the small area at the base of the brain consisting of several groups of bodies that receives input 830 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

from the system . Studies with lab animals have shown that the destruction of certain areas of the hypothalamus causes the complete elimination of sexual behavior . One of the reasons for the importance of the hypothalamus is that it controls the pituitary gland , which secretes hormones that control the other glands of the . Figure ' I , mung . Hormones Several important sexual hormones are secreted by the pituitary gland . Oxytocin , also known as the hormone of love , is released during sexual intercourse when an orgasm is achieved . Oxytocin is also released in females when they give birth or are breastfeeding it is believed that oxytocin is involved with maintaining close relationships . Both prolactin and oxytocin stimulate milk production in females . hormone ( is responsible for ovulation in females by triggering egg maturity it also stimulates sperm production in males . hormone ( triggers the release of a mature egg in females during the process of ovulation . In males , testosterone appears to be a major contributing factor to sexual motivation . is involved Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 831

in the male arousal phase , and the increase of during erectile response may be directly associated with increased motivation to engage in sexual behavior . The relationship between hormones and female sexual motivation is not as well understood , largely due to the overemphasis on male sexuality in Western research . Estrogen and progesterone typically regulate motivation to engage in sexual behavior for females , with estrogen increasing motivation and progesterone decreasing it . The levels of these hormones rise and fall throughout a menstrual cycle . Research suggests that testosterone , oxytocin , and are also implicated in female sexual motivation in similar ways as they are in males , but more research is needed to understand these relationships . Sexual Responsiveness Peak Men and women tend to reach their peak of sexual responsiveness at different ages . For men , sexual responsiveness tends to peak in the late teens and early twenties . Sexual arousal can easily occur in response to physical stimulation or fantasizing . Sexual responsiveness begins a slow decline in the late twenties and into the thirties , although a man may continue to be sexually active . Through time , a man may require more intense stimulation in order to become aroused . Women often find that they become more sexually responsive throughout their and and may peak in the late or early . This is likely due to greater and reduced inhibitions about sexuality . Sexually Transmitted Infections Sexually transmitted infections ( also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases ( or venereal diseases ( are illnesses that have a significant probability of transmission by means of sexual behavior , including vaginal intercourse , anal sex , and oral sex . Some can also be contracted by sharing intravenous drug needles with an infected person , as well as through childbirth or breastfeeding . 832 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

Common include chlamydia herpes ( and ) human ( gonorrhea syphilis trichomoniasis HIV ( human immunodeficiency virus ) and AIDS ( acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ) According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( 2014 ) there was an increase in the three most common types of in 2014 . These include million cases of chlamydia , cases of gonorrhea , and cases of syphilis . Those most affected by include those younger , males , and females . The most effective way to prevent transmission of is to practice safe sex and avoid direct contact of skin or fluids which can lead to transfer with an infected partner . Proper use of supplies ( such as male condoms , female condoms , gloves , or dental dams ) reduces contact and risk and can be effective in limiting exposure however , some disease transmission may occur even with these barriers . Societal Views on Sexuality Society views on sexuality are influenced by everything from religion to philosophy , and they have changed throughout history and are continuously evolving . Historically , religion has been the greatest influence on sexual behavior in the United States however , in more recent years , peers and the media have emerged as two of the strongest influences , particularly among American teens ( 2008 ) Mass media in the form of television , magazines , movies , and music continues to shape what is deemed appropriate or normal sexuality , targeting everything from body image to products meant Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 833

to enhance sex appeal . Media serves to perpetuate a number of social scripts about sexual relationships and the sexual roles of men and women , many of which have been shown to have both empowering and problematic effects on people ( especially women ) developing sexual identities and sexual attitudes . Cultural Differences In the West , premarital sex is normative by the late teens , more than a decade before most people enter marriage . In the United States and Canada , and in northern and eastern Europe , cohabitation is also normative most people have at least one partnership before marriage . In southern Europe , is still taboo , but premarital sex is tolerated in emerging adulthood . In contrast , both premarital sex and cohabitation remain rare and forbidden throughout Asia . Even dating is discouraged until the late twenties when it would be a prelude to a serious relationship leading to marriage . In cultural comparisons , about of emerging adults in the United States and Europe report having had premarital sexual relations by age 20 , versus less than one fifth in Japan and South Korea ( 2006 ) Sexual Orientation A person sexual orientation is their emotional and sexual attraction to a particular gender . It is a personal quality that inclines people to feel romantic or sexual attraction ( or a combination of these ) to persons of a given sex or gender . According to the American Psychological Association ( APA ) 2016 ) sexual orientation also refers to a persons sense of on those attractions , related behaviors , and membership in a community of others who share those attractions . Sexual orientation is independent of gender for example , a transgender person may identify as heterosexual , homosexual , bisexual , pansexual , asexual , or any other kind of sexuality , just like a person . Sexual Orientation on a Continuum Sexuality researcher Alfred was among the first to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight . To 834 I Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

classify this continuum of heterosexuality and homosexuality , et al . 1948 ) created a rating scale that ranged from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual . Research done over several decades has supported this idea that sexual orientation ranges along a continuum , from exclusive attraction to the opposite to exclusive attraction to the same gender ( Carroll , 2016 ) However , sexual orientation now can be defined in many ways . Heterosexuality , which is often referred to as being straight , is attraction to individuals of the opposite , while homosexuality , being gay or lesbian , is attraction to individuals of one own . Bisexuality was a term traditionally used to Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 835

refer to attraction to individuals of either male or female sex , but it has recently been used in models of sex and gender ( models that do not assume there are only two sexes or two genders ) to refer to attraction to any sex or gender . Alternative terms such as pansexuality and have also been developed , referring to attraction to all and attraction to multiple genders , respectively ( Carroll , 2016 ) Asexuality refers to having no sexual attraction to any gender . According to ( 2015 ) about one percent of the population is asexual . Being asexual is not due to any physical problems , and the lack of interest in sex does not cause the individual any distress . Asexuality is being researched as a distinct sexual orientation . Development of Sexual Orientation According to current scientific understanding , individuals are usually aware of their sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence . However , this is not always the case , and some do not become aware of their sexual orientation until much later in life . It is not necessary to participate in sexual activity to be aware of these emotional , romantic , and physical attractions people can be celibate and still recognize their sexual orientation . Some researchers argue that sexual orientation is not static and inborn but is instead fluid and changeable throughout the lifespan . There is no scientific consensus regarding the exact reasons why an individual holds a particular sexual orientation . Research has examined possible biological , developmental , social , and cultural influences on sexual orientation , but there has been no evidence that links sexual orientation to only one factor ( APA , 2016 ) However , biological explanations , that include genetics , birth order , and hormones will be explored further as many scientists support biological processes occurring during the embryonic and early postnatal life as playing the main role in sexual orientation ( 2018 ) Genetics Using both twin and familial studies , heredity provides one biological explanation for orientation . Bailey and 836 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

( 1991 ) studied pairs of male twins and found that the concordance rate for identical twins was 52 , while the rate for fraternal twins was only 22 . Bailey , and ( 1993 ) studied female twins and found a similar difference with a concordance rate of 48 for identical twins and 16 for fraternal twins . Schwartz , Kim , Sanders ( 2010 ) found that gay men had more gay male relatives than straight men , and sisters of gay men were more likely to be lesbians than sisters of straight men . Fraternal Birth Order The fraternal birth order effect indicates that the probability of a boy identifying as gay increases for each older brother born to the same mother ( 2018 , 2001 ) According to et al . the increased incidence of homosexuality in males with older brothers results from a progressive immunization of the mother against a protein that plays a key role in interactions , specifically in the process of synapse formation , as cited in , 2018 , 234 ) A indicated that the fraternal birth order effect explains the sexual orientation of between 15 and 29 of gay men . Hormones Excess or deficient exposure to hormones during prenatal development has also been theorized as an explanation Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 837

for sexual orientation . of females exposed to abnormal amounts of prenatal , a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia ( identify as bisexual or lesbian ( van de Beek , 2005 ) In contrast , too little exposure to prenatal may affect male sexual orientation by not the male brain ( 2011 ) Sexual Orientation Discrimination The United States is heteronormative , meaning that society supports heterosexuality as the norm . Consider , for example , that homosexuals are often asked , When did you know you were gay ?

but heterosexuals are rarely asked , When did you know you were straight ?

2011 ) Living in a culture that privileges heterosexuality has a significant impact on the ways in which people are able to develop and express their sexuality . Open identification of ones sexual orientation may be hindered by homophobia which encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being lesbian , gay , bisexual , or transgender ( It can be expressed as antipathy , contempt , prejudice , aversion , or hatred it may be based on irrational fear and is sometimes related to religious beliefs ( Carroll , 2016 ) Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior , such as discrimination and violence on the basis of sexual that are heterosexual . Recognized types of homophobia include institutionalized homophobia , such as religious and homophobia , and internalized homophobia in which people with attractions internalize , or believe , society negative views hatred of themselves . 838 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

Figure Sexual minorities regularly experience stigma , harassment , discrimination , and violence based on their sexual orientation ( Carroll , 2016 ) Research has shown that gay , lesbian , and bisexual teenagers are at a higher risk of depression and suicide due to exclusion from social groups , rejection from peers and family , and negative media portrayals of homosexuals ( et , 2010 ) Discrimination can occur in the workplace , in housing , at schools , and in numerous public settings . Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes and misinformation . Major policies to prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation have only come into effect in the United States in the last few years . The majority of empirical and clinical research on populations is done with largely white , samples . This demographic limits our understanding of more marginalized that are also affected by racism , classism , and other forms of oppression . In the United States , Caucasian individuals may find themselves in a double Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood 839

minority , in which they are not fully accepted or understood by Caucasian communities and are also not accepted by their own ethnic group ( Tye , 2006 ) Many people experience racism in the dominant community where racial stereotypes merge with gender stereotypes . References , 2013 ) of marital change From arranged marriages to eloping for love . Journal of Marriage and Family , 75 , A . 2011 ) Partner preferences across the life span Online dating by older adults . Psychology of Popular Media Culture , American Psychiatric Association . 2013 ) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( Fifth Edition ) Washington , Author . American Psychological Association . 2016 ) Sexual orientation and homosexuality . Retrieved from , 2000 ) Emerging adulthood A theory of development from late teens through the twenties . American Psychologist , 55 , 2001 ) Conceptions of the transitions to adulthood Perspectives from adolescence to midlife . Journal of Adult Development , 2003 ) Conceptions of the transition to adulthood among emerging adults in American ethnic groups . New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development , 100 , 2004 ) Conceptions of the transition to adulthood among emerging adults in American ethnic groups . In ( Cultural conceptions of the transition to 840 Chapter 22 Physical Development in Early Adulthood

adulthood New directions in child and adolescent development . San Francisco . 2006 ) Stanley Hall adolescence Brilliance and sense . History of Psychology , 2007 ) The long and leisurely route Coming of age in Europe today . Current History , 106 , 2011 ) Emerging adulthood ( The cultural psychology of a new life stage . In Jensen ( Ed . Bridging cultural and developmental psychology New syntheses in theory , research , and policy ( New York , NY Oxford University Press . 2016 ) Does emerging adulthood theory apply across social classes ?

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