Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part VIII Chapter 17 Cognitive Develoment in Middle Childhood

Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood Describe concrete operational stage and the characteristics of concrete thought Describe information processing research on memory , attention , and critical thinking Describe language development and explain the three types of communication disorders Describe the theories of intelligence , including general , theory , and Gardner multiple intelligences Explain how intelligence is measured , the tests used to assess intelligence , the extremes in intelligence , and the concern of bias Describe how language and culture influence the typical classroom Identify common disabilities in childhood and the legislation that protects them educationally 630 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Recall from the last chapter that children in early childhood are in stage , and during this stage , children are learning to think symbolically about the world . Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood as thought processes become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information . Children at this age understand concepts such as past , present , and future , giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals . Additionally , they can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and relationships . Concrete Operational Thought From ages to 11 , children are in what referred to as the concrete operational stage of cognitive development ( Crain , 2005 ) This involves mastering the use of logic in concrete ways . The word concrete refers to that which is tangible that which can be seen , touched or experienced directly . The concrete operational child is able to make use of logical principles in solving problems involving the physical world . For example , the child can understand the principles of cause and effect , size , and distance . The child can use logic to solve problems tied to their own direct experience but has trouble solving hypothetical problems or considering more abstract problems . The child uses inductive reasoning , which is a logical process in which multiple premises believed to be true are combined to obtain a specific conclusion . For example , a child has one friend who is rude , another friend who is also rude , and the same is true for a third friend . The child may conclude that friends are rude . We will see that this way of thinking tends to change during adolescence being replaced with deductive reasoning . We will now explore some of the major abilities that the concrete child exhibits . Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 631

Classification As children experiences and grow , they build schemata and are able to organize objects in many different ways . They also understand classification hierarchies and can arrange objects into a variety of classes and . Figure Children In the concrete operational how to classify organisms at , I of . Source Identity One feature of concrete operational thought is the understanding that objects have qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some way . For instance , the mass of an object does not change by rearranging it . A piece of chalk is still chalked even when the piece is broken in two . Reversibility The child learns that some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state . Water can be frozen and then thawed to become liquid again , but eggs can not be unscrambled . Arithmetic operations are reversible as well and . Many of these cognitive skills are incorporated 632 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

into the school curriculum through mathematical problems and in worksheets about which situations are reversible or irreversible . Conservation Remember the example in our last chapter of children thinking that a tall beaker filled with ounces of water was more than a short , wide bowl filled with ounces of water ?

Concrete operational children can understand the concept of conservation which means that changing one quality ( in this example , height or water level ) can be compensated for by changes in another quality ( width ) Consequently , there is the same amount of water in each container , although one is taller and narrower and the other is shorter and wider . Decentration Concrete operational children no longer focus on only one dimension of any object ( such as the height of the glass ) and instead consider the changes in other dimensions too ( such as the width of the glass ) This allows for conservation to occur . Seriation Arranging items along a quantitative dimension , such as length or weight , in a methodical way is now demonstrated by the concrete operational child . For example , they can methodically arrange a series of sticks in order by length , while younger children approach a similar task in a haphazard way . These new cognitive skills increase the child understanding of the physical world , however according to , they still can not think in abstract ways . Additionally , they do not think in systematic scientific ways . For example , when asked which variables influence the period that a pendulum takes to complete its arc and given weights they can attach to strings in order to do experiments , most children younger than 12 perform biased experiments from which no conclusions can be drawn ( 1958 ) Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 633

Information Processing Children differ in their memory abilities , and these differences predict both their readiness for school and academic performance in school ( 2013 ) During middle and late childhood children make strides in several areas of cognitive function including the capacity of working memory , their ability to pay attention , and their use of memory strategies . Both changes in the brain and experience foster these abilities . Working Memory The capacity of working memory expands during middle and late childhood , and research has suggested that both an increase in processing speed and the ability to inhibit irrelevant information from entering memory are contributing to the greater efficiency of working memory during this age ( de , 2002 ) Changes in myelination and synaptic pruning in the cortex are likely behind the increase in processing speed and ability to filter out irrelevant stimuli ( Kail , Cho , Shu , 2013 ) Children with learning disabilities in math and reading often have difficulties with working memory ( 2009 ) They may struggle with following the directions of an assignment . When a task calls for multiple steps , children with poor working memory may miss steps because they may lose track of where they are in the task . Adults working with such children may need to communicate Using more familiar vocabulary , using shorter sentences , repeating task instructions more frequently , and breaking more complex tasks into smaller more manageable steps . Some studies have also shown that more intensive training of working memory strategies , such as , aid in improving the capacity of working memory in children with poor working memory ( Lau , 2013 ) Attention As noted above , the ability to inhibit irrelevant information improves during this age group , with there being a 634 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

sharp improvement in selective attention from age six into adolescence ( Vakil , 2009 ) Children also improve in their ability to shift their attention between tasks or different features of a task ( 2013 ) A younger child who is asked to sort objects into piles based on type of object , car versus animal , or color of object , red versus blue , may have difficulty if you switch from asking them to sort based on type to now having them sort based on color . This requires them to suppress the prior sorting rule . An older child has less difficulty making the switch , meaning there is greater flexibility in their attentional skills . These changes in attention and working memory contribute to children having more strategic approaches to challenging tasks . Memory Strategies ( 2005 ) describes a developmental progression in the acquisition and use of memory strategies . Such strategies are often lacking in younger children but increase in frequency as children progress through elementary school . Examples of memory strategies include rehearsing information you wish to recall , visualizing and organizing information , creating rhymes , such i before except after , or inventing acronyms , such as to remember the colors of the rainbow . Schneider , and ( 2009 ) reported a steady increase in the use of memory strategies from ages six to ten in their longitudinal study ( see Table 52 ) Moreover , by age ten many children were using two or more memory strategies to help them recall information . Schneider and colleagues found that there were considerable individual differences at each age in the use of strategies , and that children who utilized more strategies had better memory performance than their same aged peers . Children may experience three deficiencies in their use of memory strategies . A mediation deficiency occurs when a child does not grasp the strategy being taught , and thus , does not benefit from its use . Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 635

Percent of who did not use any Memory Strategies by Age . 44 25 17 10 13 If you do not understand why using an acronym might be helpful , or how to create an acronym , the strategy is not likely to help you . In a production deficiency the child does not spontaneously use a memory strategy and must be prompted to do so . In this case , children know the strategy and are more than capable of using it , but they fail to produce the strategy on their own . For example , children might know how to make a list , but may fail to do this to help them remember what to bring on a family vacation . deficiency refers to children using an appropriate strategy , but it fails to aid their performance . Utilization deficiency is common in the early stages of learning a new memory strategy ( Schneider , 1997 Miller , 2000 ) Until the use of the strategy becomes automatic it may slow down the learning process , as space is taken up in memory by the strategy itself . Initially , children may get frustrated because their memory performance may seem worse when they try to use the new strategy . Once children become more adept at using the strategy , their memory performance will improve . and Schneider ( 1999 ) found that new memory strategies acquired prior to age eight often show utilization deficiencies with there being a gradual improvement in the child use of the strategy . In contrast , strategies acquired after 636 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

this age often followed an principle in which improvement was not gradual , but abrupt . Knowledge Base During middle and late childhood , children are able to learn and remember due to an improvement in the ways they attend to and store information . As children enter school and learn more about the world , they develop more categories for concepts and learn more efficient strategies for storing and retrieving information . One significant reason is that they continue to have more experiences on which to tie new information . In other words , their knowledge base , knowledge in particular areas that makes learning new information easier , expands ( Berger , 2014 ) Children in middle and late childhood also have a better understanding of how well they are performing a task , and the level of difficulty of a task . As they become more realistic about their abilities , they can adapt studying strategies to meet those needs . Young children spend as much time on an unimportant aspect of a problem as they do on the main point , while older children start to learn to prioritize and gauge what is significant and what is not . As a result , they develop refers to the knowledge we have about our own thinking and our ability to use this awareness to regulate our own cognitive processes ( 2004 ) Critical Thinking . According to et al . 2004 ) there is a debate in US . education as to whether schools should teach students what to think or how to think . Critical thinking , or a detailed examination of beliefs , courses of action , and evidence , involves teaching children how to think . The purpose of critical thinking is to evaluate information in ways that help us make informed decisions . Critical thinking involves better understanding a problem through gathering , evaluating , and selecting information , and also by considering many possible solutions . Ennis ( 1987 ) identified several skills useful in critical thinking . These include Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 637

Analyzing arguments , clarifying information , judging the credibility of a source , making value judgements , and deciding on an action . is essential to critical thinking because it allows us to reflect on the information as we make decisions . Language Development Vocabulary One of the reasons that children can classify objects in so many ways is that they have acquired a vocabulary to do so . By fifth grade , a childs vocabulary has grown to words . It grows at a rate that exceeds that of those in early childhood . This language explosion , however , differs from that of younger children because it is facilitated by being able to associate new words with those already known , and because it is accompanied by a more sophisticated understanding of the meanings of a word . New Understanding Those in middle and late childhood are also able to think of objects in less literal ways . For example , if asked for the first word that comes to mind when one hears the word pizza , the younger child is likely to say eat or some word that describes what is done with a pizza . However , the older child is more likely to place pizza in the appropriate category and say food . This sophistication of vocabulary is also evidenced by the fact that older children tell jokes and delight in doing do . They may use jokes that involve plays on words such as knock jokes or jokes with punch lines . Young children do not understand play on words and tell jokes that are literal or slapstick , such as A man fell down in the mud ! that funny ?

Grammar and Flexibility Older children are also able to learn new rules of grammar with more flexibility . While younger children are likely to be reluctant to give up saying I there , older children will learn this rather quickly along with other rules of grammar . 638 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Communication Disorders At the end of early childhood , children are often assessed in terms of their ability to speak properly . By first grade , about of children have a notable speech disorder ( Plus , Fluency disorders Fluency disorders affect the rate of speech . Speech may be labored and slow , or too fast for listeners to follow . The most common fluency disorder is stuttering . Stuttering is a speech disorder in which sounds , syllables , or words are repeated or last longer than normal . These problems cause a break in the flow of speech , which is called ( Plus , About of young children , aged , will develop some stuttering that may last from several weeks to several years ( Plus , Approximately 75 of children recover from stuttering . For the remaining 25 , stuttering can persist as a lifelong communication disorder ( National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders , 2016 ) This is called developmental stuttering and is the most common form of stuttering . Brain injury , and in very rare instances , emotional trauma may be other triggers for developing problems with stuttering . In most cases of developmental stuttering , other family members share the same communication disorder . Researchers have recently identified variants in four genes that are more commonly found in those who stutter ( 2016 ) Articulation disorder An articulation disorder refers to the inability to correctly produce speech sounds ( because of imprecise placement , timing , pressure , speed , or flow of movement of the lips , tongue , or throat ( 2016 ) Sounds can be substituted , left off , added or changed . These errors may make it hard for people to understand the speaker . They can range from problems with specific sounds , such as lisping to severe impairment in the phonological system . Most children have problems Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 639

pronouncing words early on while their speech is developing . However , by age three , at least half of what a child says should be understood by a stranger . By age five , a childs speech should be mostly intelligible . Parents should seek help if by age six the child is still having trouble producing certain sounds . It should be noted that accents are not articulation disorders ( Plus , Voice disorders Disorders of the voice involve problems with pitch , loudness , and quality of the voice ( American and Hearing Association , 2016 ) It only becomes a disorder when problems with the voice makes the child unintelligible . In children , voice disorders are significantly more prevalent in males than in females . Between and of children experience problems with the quality of their voice . Causes can be due to structural abnormalities in the vocal cords larynx , functional factors , such as vocal fatigue from overuse , and in rarer cases psychological factors , such as chronic stress and anxiety . Theories of Intelligence Psychologists have long debated how to best conceptualize and measure intelligence ( 2003 ) These questions include How many types of intelligence are there , the role of nature versus nurture in intelligence , how intelligence is represented in the brain , and the meaning of group differences in intelligence . 640 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Figure Alfred General ( versus Specific ( From the French psychologist Alfred ( and his colleague Theodore Simon ( began working on behalf of the French government to develop a measure that would identify children who would not be successful with the regular school curriculum . The goal was to help teachers better educate these students ( 1994 ) and Simon developed what most psychologists today regard as the first intelligence test , which consisted of a wide variety of questions that included the ability to name objects , define words , draw pictures , complete sentences , compare items , and construct sentences . and Simon ( Simon , Town , 1915 , 1992 ) believed that the questions they asked the children all assessed the basic abilities to understand , reason , and make judgments . It turned out that the correlations among these different types of measures were in fact all positive that is , students who got one item correct were Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 641

more likely to also get other items correct , even though the questions themselves were very different . On the basis of these results , the psychologist Charles Spearman ( hypothesized that there must be a single underlying construct that all of these items measure . called the construct that the different abilities and skills measured on intelligence tests have in common the General Intelligence Factor ( Virtually all psychologists now believe that there is a generalized intelligence factor , that relates to abstract thinking and that includes the abilities to acquire knowledge , to reason abstractly , to adapt to novel situations , and to benefit from instruction and experience ( 1997 , 2003 ) People with higher general intelligence learn faster . Soon after and Simon introduced their test , the American psychologist Lewis at Stanford University ( developed an American version of test that became known as the Intelligence Test . The is a measure of general intelligence made up of a wide variety of tasks , including vocabulary , memory for pictures , naming of familiar objects , repeating sentences , and following commands . 642 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

I Have you taken an intelligence test ! Although there is general agreement among psychologists that exists , there is also evidence for specific intelligence , a measure of specific skills in narrow domains . One empirical result in support of the idea of comes from intelligence tests themselves . Although the different types of questions do correlate with each other , some items correlate more highly with each other than do other items they form clusters or clumps of intelligence . Theory One advocate of the idea of multiple intelligences is the psychologist Robert . has proposed a ( theory of intelligence that proposes that people may display more or less analytical intelligence , creative intelligence , and practical intelligence . 1985 , 2003 ) argued that traditional intelligence tests assess analytical intelligence , academic problem solving and performing calculations , Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 643

but that they do not typically assess creative intelligence , the ability to adapt to new situations and create new ideas , practical intelligence , the ability to demonstrate common sense and smarts . As proposed , research has found that creativity is not highly correlated with analytical intelligence ( 2008 ) and exceptionally creative scientists , artists , mathematicians , and engineers do not score higher on intelligence than do their less , creative peers ( 2000 ) Figure How many uses can you think of for a paper clip ?

in Furthermore , the brain areas that are associated with convergent thinking , thinking that is directed toward finding the correct answer to a given problem , are different from those associated with divergent thinking , the ability to generate many different ideas or solutions to a single problem ( 2010 ) On the other hand , being creative often takes some of the basic abilities measured by , including the abilities to learn from experience , to remember information , and to think abstractly ( Bink Marsh , 2000 ) 1998 ) 2006 ) and ( 2010 ) and ( 1992 ) studied creative people and 644 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

identified at least five components that are likely to be important for creativity as listed in Table Table up . um . a net TIL ! uh nu ' warm In an RI not antic I The um re . mini . no by ha an The last aspect of the model , practical intelligence , refers primarily to intelligence that can not be gained from books or formal learning . Practical intelligence represents a type of street smarts or common sense that is learned from life experiences . Although a number of tests have been devised to measure practical intelligence ( Wagner , 1993 Wagner , 1985 ) research has not found much evidence that practical intelligence is distinct from or that it is predictive of success at any particular tasks ( 2003 ) Practical intelligence may include , at least in part , certain abilities that help people perform well at specific jobs , and these abilities may not always be highly correlated with general intelligence ( et , 1993 ) Theory of Multiple Intelligences Another champion of the idea of specific types of intelligences rather than one overall intelligence is the psychologist Howard Gardner ( 1983 , 1999 ) Gardner argued that it would be functional for different people to have different talents and skills and proposed that there are eight intelligences that can be differentiated from each other . A potential ninth intelligence that is , existential still needs empirical support . Gardner investigated intelligences by focusing on children who Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 645

were talented in one or more areas and adults who suffered from strokes that compromised some capacities , but not others . Gardner also noted that some evidence for multiple intelligences comes from the abilities of autistic savants , people who score low on intelligence tests overall , but who nevertheless may have exceptional skills in a given domain , such as math , music , art , or in being able to recite statistics in a given sport ( Wallace , 2004 ) In addition to brain damage and the existence of savants , Gardner identified these intelligences based on other criteria including a set developmental history and psychometric findings . See Table for a list of Gardner eight specific intelligences . 646 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Table 54 Howard Gardner Eight Specific Intelligences Intelligence Linguistic Spatial Musical Kinesthetic ( body ) Interpersonal Naturalistic Source Adapted from Gardner , 1999 ) Intelligence reframed Multiple intelligences for the century . New York , NY Basic Books . Description abi ity to speak and write well abi ity to use logic and mathematical skills to solve problems abi ity to think and reason about objects in three dimensions abi ity to perform and enjoy music abi ity to move the body in sports , dance , or other activities abi ity to understand and interact effectively with abi ity to have insight into the self abi ity to recognize , i entify , and understand animals , plants , and other living things Table The idea of multiple intelligences has been influential in the field of education , and teachers have used these ideas to try to teach Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 647

differently to different students . For instance , to teach math problems to students who have particularly good kinesthetic intelligence , a teacher might encourage the students to move their bodies or hands according to the numbers . On the other hand , some have argued that these intelligences sometimes seem more like abilities or talents rather than real intelligence . There is no clear conclusion about how many intelligences there are . Are sense of humor , artistic skills , dramatic skills , and so forth also separate intelligences ?

Furthermore , and again demonstrating the underlying power of a single intelligence , the many different intelligences are , in fact , correlated and thus represent , in part , Brody , 2003 ) Finn Measuring Intelligence Standardization and the Intelligence Quotient The goal of most intelligence tests is to measure , the general 648 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

intelligence factor . Good intelligence tests are reliable , meaning that they are consistent over time , and also demonstrate validity , meaning that they actually measure intelligence rather than something else . Because intelligence is such an important individual difference dimension , psychologists have invested substantial effort in creating and improving measures of intelligence , and these tests are now considered the most accurate of all psychological tests . In fact , the ability to accurately assess intelligence is one of the most important contributions of psychology to everyday public life . Intelligence changes with age . A who could accurately multiply 183 by 39 would certainly be intelligent , but a old who could not do so would be seen as unintelligent . Thus , understanding intelligence requires that we know the norms or standards in a given population of people at a given age . The standardization of a test involves giving it to a large number of people at different ages and computing the average score on the test at each age level . It is important that intelligence tests be standardized on a regular basis , because the overall level of intelligence in a population may change over time . The Flynn effect refers to the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide have increased substantially over the past decades ( Flynn , 1999 ) Although the increase varies somewhat from country to country , the average increase is about IQ points every 10 years . There are many explanations for the Flynn effect , including better nutrition , increased access to information , and more familiarity with tests ( 1998 ) Whether people are actually getting smarter , however , is debatable ( 1997 ) Most of the increase in IQ occurred during the second half of the century . Recent research has found a reversal of the Flynn effect in several nations around the world , although some nations still show an increase in IQ scores ( Dutton , van der Linden , Lynn , 2016 ) Once the standardization has been accomplished , we have a picture Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 649

of the average abilities of people at different ages and can calculate a person mental age , which is the age at which a person is performing intellectually . If we compare the mental age of a person to the person chronological age , the result is the Intelligence Quotient ( IQ ) a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age . A simple way to calculate IQ is by using the following formula IQ mental age chronological age 100 . Thus a child who does as well as the average old child has an IQ of 100 ( 10 10 100 ) whereas an child who does as well as the average child would have an IQ of 125 ( 10 100 ) Most modern intelligence tests are based on the relative position of a persons score among people of the same age , rather than on the basis of this formula , but the idea of an intelligence ratio or quotient provides a good description of the scores meaning . A number of scales are based on the IQ . The Adult Intelligence Scale ( is the most widely used intelligence test for adults ( Watkins , Campbell , Hallmark , 1995 ) The current version of the , the , was standardized on people ranging from 16 to 90 years of age . It consists of 15 different tasks , each designed to assess intelligence , including working memory , arithmetic ability , spatial ability , and general knowledge about the world . The yield scores on four domains verbal , perceptual , working memory , and processing speed . The reliability of the test is high ( more than ) and it shows substantial construct validity . The is correlated highly with other IQ tests such as the , as well as with criteria of academic and life success , including college grades , measures of work performance , and occupational level . It also shows significant correlations with measures of everyday functioning among people with intellectual disabilities . The scale has also been adapted for preschool children 650 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

in the form of the Primary and Preschool Scale of Edition ( and for older children and adolescents in the form of the Intelligence Scale for Edition ( Figure illustrates items from the . Figure Figure Inc from the Bias Intelligence tests and psychological definitions of intelligence have been heavily criticized since the for being biased in favor of , respondents and for being inadequate tools for measuring types of intelligence or talent . Intelligence changes with experience , and intelligence or scores do not reflect that ability to change . What is considered smart varies culturally as well , and most intelligence tests do not take this variation into account . For example , in the West , being smart is associated with being quick . A person who answers a question the fastest is seen as the smartest , but in some cultures being smart is associated with considering an idea thoroughly before giving an answer . A thought out , the contemplative answer is the best answer . Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 651

Extremes of Intelligence Intellectual Disability and Giftedness The results of studies assessing the measurement of intelligence show that IQ is distributed in the population in the form of a normal distribution ( or bell curve ) which is the pattern of scores usually observed in a variable that clusters around its average . In a normal distribution , the bulk of the scores fall toward the middle , with fewer scores falling at the extremes . The normal distribution of intelligence shows that on IQ tests , as well as on most other measures , the majority of people cluster around the average ( in this case , where IQ 100 ) and fewer are either very smart or very dull ( see Figure ) Because the standard deviation of an IQ test is about 15 , this means that about of people score above an IQ of 130 , often considered the threshold for giftedness , and about the same percentage score below an IQ of 70 , often being considered the threshold for intellectual disability . Although Figure presents a single distribution , the actual IQ distribution varies by sex such that the distribution for men is more spread out than is the distribution for women . These sex differences mean that about 20 more men than women fall in the extreme ( very smart or very dull ) ends of the distribution ( Johnson , Deary , 2009 ) Boys are about five times more likely to be diagnosed with the reading disability dyslexia than are girls ( 1992 ) and are also more likely to be classified as having an intellectual disability . However , boys are also about 20 more highly represented in the upper end of the IQ distribution . Figure 652 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Hair II Sun II II ( in mind . nu . nu . nu . Lil um mu . um I One end of the distribution of intelligence scores is defined by people with very low IQ . Intellectual disability ( or intellectual developmental disorder ) is assessed based on cognitive capacity ( IQ ) and adaptive functioning . The severity of the disability is based on adaptive functioning , or how well the person handles everyday life tasks . About of the United States population , most of them males , fulfill the criteria for the intellectual developmental disorder , but some children who are given this diagnosis lose the classification as they get older and better learn to function in society . A particular vulnerability of people with low IQ is that they may be taken advantage of by others , and this is an important aspect of the definition of intellectual developmental disorder ( Black , 2001 ) One cause of the intellectual developmental disorder is Down syndrome , a chromosomal disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra chromosome . The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at approximately per 700 births , and the prevalence increases as the mothers age increases ( 2014 ) People with Down syndrome typically exhibit a distinctive pattern of physical features , including a flat nose , upwardly slanted eyes , a protruding tongue , and a short neck ( see Figure ) Fortunately , societal attitudes toward individuals with intellectual Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 653

disabilities have changed over the past decades . Laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act ( ADA ) have made it illegal to discriminate on the basis of mental and physical disability , and there has been a trend to bring people with intellectual disabilities out of institutions and into our workplaces and schools . Giftedness refers to children who have an IQ of 130 or higher ( Lally , 2015 ) Having extremely high IQ is clearly less of a problem than having extremely low IQ , but there may also be challenges to being particularly smart . It is often assumed that schoolchildren who are labeled as gifted may have adjustment problems that make it more difficult for them to create social relationships . To study gifted children , Lewis and his colleagues ( Oden , 1959 ) selected about high school students who scored in the top on the and similar IQ tests ( who had of about 135 or higher ) and tracked them for more than seven decades ( the children became known as the termites and are still being studied today ) This study found that these students were not unhealthy or poorly adjusted , but rather were above average in physical health and were taller and heavier than individuals in the general population . The students also had 654 I Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

social relationships and were less likely to divorce than the average person ( 1975 ) study also found that many of these students went on to achieve high levels of education and entered prestigious professions , including medicine , law , and science . Of the sample , earned doctoral degrees , earned medical degrees , and earned law degrees . Figure A The popular stereotype of highly intelligent people as physically uncoordinated and unpopular is not true . These numbers are all considerably higher than what would have been expected from a more general population . Another study of young adolescents who had even higher found that these students ended up attending graduate school at a rate more than 50 times higher than that in the general population ( 2006 ) As you might expect based on our discussion of intelligence , kids who are gifted have higher scores on general intelligence , but there are also different types of giftedness . Some children are Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 655

particularly good at math or science , some at automobile repair or carpentry , some at music or art , some at sports or leadership , and so on . There is a lively debate among scholars about whether it is appropriate or beneficial to label some children as gifted and talented in school and to provide them with accelerated special classes and other programs that are not available to everyone . Although doing so may help the gifted kids ( 2009 ) it also may isolate them from their peers and make such provisions unavailable to those who are not classified as Education Remember the ecological systems model ( 1979 ) that we explored in chapter one ?

This model helps us understand an individual by examining the in which the person lives and the direct and indirect influences on that person life . School becomes a very important component of children lives during middle and late childhood , and parents and the culture contribute to children experiences in school as indicated by the ecological systems model through their interaction with the school . Gender The stereotypes held by parents and teachers can influence children in various domains . For example , teachers who hold the view that girls are better at reading ( Schwartz , 2015 ) or boys are better at math ( de la , 2013 ) often find that their students performance in these areas mirror these stereotypes , despite the childrens actual ability , or the ability of children in the classrooms of teachers who do not hold such stereotypes . While not all children will internalize the views of others , those who do are more likely to show declines in their performance consistent with the stereotypes ( et , 2013 et , 2015 ) Parental Involvement in School Parents vary in their level of 656 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

involvement with their children schools . Teachers often complain that they have difficulty getting parents to participate in their child education and devise a variety of techniques to keep parents in touch with daily and overall progress . For example , parents may be required to sign a behavior chart each evening to be returned to school or may be given information about the school events through websites and newsletters . There are other factors that need to be considered when looking at parental involvement . To explore these , first ask yourself if all parents who enter the school with concerns about their child be received in the same way ?

2004 ) found that teachers seek a particular type of involvement from particular types of parents . While teachers thought they were open and neutral in their responses to parental involvement , in reality teachers were most receptive to support , praise and agreement coming from parents who were most similar in race and social class with the teachers . Parents who criticized the school or its policies were less likely to be given voice . Parents who have higher levels of income , occupational status , and other qualities favored in society have family capital . This is a form of power that can be used to improve a childs education . Parents who do not have these qualities may find it more difficult to be effectively involved . The authors suggest that teachers closely examine their biases against parents . Schools may also need to examine their ability to dialogue with parents about school policies in more open ways . Any efforts to improve effective parental involvement should address these concerns . Cultural Differences in the Classroom Bilingualism In 2013 , approximately 20 of school aged children and adolescents spoke a language other than English in the home ( 2014 ) The majority of bilingual students speak Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 657

Spanish , but the rest represent more than three hundred different language groups from around the world . In larger communities throughout the United States , it is therefore common for a single classroom to contain students from several language backgrounds at once . In classrooms , as in other social settings , bilingualism exists in different forms and degrees . At one extreme are students who speak both English and another language at the other extreme are those who speak only limited versions of both languages . In between are students who speak their home ( or heritage ) language much better than English , as well as others who have partially lost their heritage language in the process of learning English ( Tse , 2001 ) Commonly , a student may speak a language satisfactorily , but be challenged by reading or writing it . Whatever the case , each bilingual student poses unique challenges to teachers . Figure The student who speaks both languages fluently has a definite 658 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

cognitive advantage . As you might suspect , and research confirms , a fully fluent bilingual student is in a better position to express concepts or ideas in more than one way , and to be aware of doing so ( Jimenez , Garcia , Pearson , 1995 Francis , 2006 ) Unfortunately , the bilingualism of many students is unbalanced in the sense that they are either still learning English , or else they have lost some earlier ability to use their original , heritage language . Losing one original language is a concern as research finds that language loss limits students ability to learn English as well or as quickly as they could do . Having a large vocabulary in a first language has been shown to save time in learning vocabulary in a second language ( Hansen , 2002 ) Preserving the first language is important if a student has impaired skill in all languages and therefore needs intervention or help from a specialist . Research has found , in such cases , that the specialist can more effective if the specialist speaks and uses the first language as well as English ( Kan , Duran , 2005 ) In ?

Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 659 Cultures and ethnic groups differ not only in languages , but also in how languages are used . Since some of the patterns differ from those typical of modern classrooms , they can create misunderstandings between teachers and students ( 2001 Rogers , et , 2005 ) Consider these examples In some cultures , it is considered polite or even intelligent not to speak unless you have something truly important to say . Chitchat , or talk that simply affirms a personal tie between people , is considered immature or intrusive ( 2002 ) In a classroom , this habit can make it easier for a child to learn not to interrupt others , but it can also make the child seem unfriendly . Eye contact varies by culture . In many African American and Latin American communities , it is considered appropriate and respectful for a child not to look directly at an adult who is speaking to them ( 1998 ) In classrooms , however , teachers often expect a lot of eye contact ( as in I want all eyes on me ! and may be tempted to construe lack of eye contact as a sign of indifference or disrespect . Social distance varies by culture . In some cultures , it is common to stand relatively close when having a conversation in others , it is more customary to stand relatively far apart ( 2004 ) Problems may happen when a teacher and a student prefer different social distances . A student who expects a closer distance than does the teacher may seem overly familiar or intrusive , whereas one who expects a longer distance may seem overly formal or hesitant . Wait time varies by culture . Wait time is the gap between the end of one person comment or question and the next person reply or answer . In some cultures wait time is relatively long , as long as three or four seconds ( 1989 ) In others it is a negative gap , meaning that it is acceptable , even expected , for a person to interrupt before the end of the previous comment . In classrooms the wait time 660 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

is customarily about one second after that , the teacher is likely to move on to another question or to another student . A student who habitually expects a wait time longer than one second may seem hesitant , and not be given many chances to speak . A student who expects a negative wait time , on the other hand , may seem overeager or even rude . In most cultures , questions are intended to gain information , and it is assumed that a person asking the question truly does not have the information requested ( 2003 ) In most classrooms , however , teachers regularly ask test questions , which are questions to which the teacher already knows the answer and that simply assess whether a student knows the answer as well ( Macbeth , 2003 ) The question How much is ?

for example , is a test question . If the student is not aware of this purpose , he or she may become confused , or think that the teacher is surprisingly ignorant . Worse yet , the student may feel that the teacher is trying deliberately to shame the student by revealing the students ignorance or incompetence to others . Figure 91 ' Preference for activities that are cooperative rather than Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 661

competitive . Many activities in school are competitive , even when teachers try to the competition . Once past the first year or second year of school , students often become attentive to who receives the highest marks on an assignment , for example , or who is the best athlete at various sports or whose contributions to class discussions gets the most verbal recognition from the teacher ( Johnson Johnson , 1998 ) A teacher deliberately organizes important activities or assignments competitively , as in Lets see who finishes the math sheet first . Classroom life can then become explicitly competitive , and the competitive atmosphere can interfere with cultivating supportive relationships among students or between students and the teacher ( Cohen , 2004 ) For students who give priority to these relationships , competition can seem confusing at best and threatening at worst . A student may wonder , What sort of sharing or helping with answers is allowed ?

The answer to this question may be different depending on the cultural background of the student and teacher . What the student views as cooperative sharing may be seen by the teacher as laziness , freeloading , or even cheating . Figure 662 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

! I A ni ( I . launches ho . hup I Ih ! I AG ( I ) I ! Children with Disabilities A Learning Disability ( or ) is a specific impairment of academic learning that interferes with a specific aspect of schoolwork and that reduces a students academic performance shows itself as a major discrepancy between a student ability and some feature of achievement The student may be delayed in reading , writing , listening , speaking , or doing mathematics , but not in all of these at once . A learning problem is not considered a learning disability if it stems from physical , sensory , or motor handicaps , or from generalized intellectual impairment . It is also not an if the learning problem really reflects the challenges of learning English as a second language . Genuine are the learning problems left over after these other possibilities are accounted for or excluded . Typically , a student with an has not been helped by teachers ordinary efforts to assist the student when he or she falls behind academically , though what counts as an ordinary effort , of course , differs among teachers , Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 663

schools , and students . Most importantly , though , an relates to a fairly specific area of academic learning . A student may be able to read and compute well enough , for example , but not be able to write . are by far the most common form of special educational need , accounting for half of all students with special needs in the United States and approximately 20 of all students , depending on how the numbers are estimated ( National Center for Learning Disabilities , 2017 ) Students with are so common , in fact , that most teachers regularly encounter at least one per class in any given school year , regardless of the grade level they teach . These difficulties are identified in school because this is when children academic abilities are being tested , compared , and measured . Consequently , once academic testing is no longer essential in that person life ( as when they are working rather than going to school ) these disabilities may no longer be noticed or relevant , depending on the person job and the extent of the disability . Dyslexia is one of the most commonly diagnosed disabilities and involves having difficulty in the area of reading . This diagnosis is used for a number of reading difficulties . Common characteristics are difficulty with phonological processing , which includes the manipulation of sounds , spelling , and rapid processing . Additionally , the child may reverse letters , have difficulty reading from left to right , or may have problems associating letters with sounds . It appears to be rooted in neurological problems involving the parts of the brain active in recognizing letters , verbally responding , or being able to manipulate sounds . Recent studies have identified a number of genes that are linked to developing dyslexia ( National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke , 2016 ) Treatment typically involves altering teaching methods to accommodate the person particular problematic area . Dysgraphia refers to a writing disability that is often associated with 664 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

dyslexia ( 2013 ) There are different types of dysgraphia , including phonological dysgraphia when the person can not sound out words and write them phonetically . Orthographic dysgraphia is demonstrated by those individuals who can spell regularly spelled words , but not irregularly spelled ones . Some individuals with dysgraphia experience difficulties in motor control and experience trouble forming letters when using a pen or pencil . refers to problems in math . and Powell ( 2014 ) identified several terms used when describing difficulties in mathematics including , mathematical learning disability , and mathematics disorder . All three terms refer to students with average intelligence who exhibit poor academic performance in mathematics . When evaluating a group of third graders , and Powell ( 2014 ) found that children with demonstrated problems with working memory , reasoning , processing speed and oral language , all of which are referred to as factors . Additionally , problems with skills , including number system knowledge , were also exhibited . Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 665

A child with disorder ( shows a constant pattern of inattention hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning ( American Psychological Association ( APA ) 2013 ) Some of the signs of inattention include great difficulty with , and avoidance of , tasks that require sustained attention ( such as conversations or reading ) failure to follow instructions ( often resulting in failure to complete schoolwork and other duties ) disorganization ( difficulty keeping things in order , poor time management , sloppy and messy work ) lack of attention to detail , becoming easily distracted , and forgetfulness . Hyperactivity is characterized by excessive movement and includes fidgeting or squirming , leaving one seat in situations when remaining seated is expected , having trouble sitting still ( in a restaurant ) running about and climbing on things , blurting out responses before another person question or statement has been completed , difficulty waiting for one turn for something , and interrupting and intruding on others . Frequently , the hyperactive child comes across as noisy and boisterous . The child behavior is hasty , impulsive , and seems to occur without much forethought these characteristics may explain why adolescents and young adults diagnosed with receive more traffic tickets and have more automobile accidents than do others their age ( Thompson , Pelham , 2007 ) occurs in about of children ( APA , 2013 ) On average , boys are times more likely to have than are girls however , such findings might reflect the greater propensity of boys to engage in aggressive and antisocial behavior and thus incur a greater likelihood of being referred to psychological clinics ( 2006 ) Children with face severe academic and social challenges . Compared to their counterparts , children with have lower grades and standardized test scores and higher rates of expulsion , grade retention , and dropping out . They also are less and more often rejected by their peers ( et , 2005 ) 666 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Figure can persist into adolescence and adulthood ( Fischer , Smallish , Fletcher , 2002 ) A recent study found that of adults who had been diagnosed with decades earlier still showed symptoms ( et , 2013 ) Somewhat troubling , this study also reported that nearly 81 of those whose persisted into adulthood had experienced at least one other disorder , compared to 47 of those whose did not persist . Additional concerns when an adult has include Worse educational attainment , lower socioeconomic status , less likely to be employed , more likely to be divorced , and more likely to have substance abuse problems ( Klein et , 2012 ) Etiology of Family and twin studies indicate that genetics play a significant role in the development of . Burt ( 2009 ) in a review of 26 studies , reported that the median rate of concordance for identical twins was , whereas the median concordance rate for fraternal twins was . The specific genes involved in are thought to include at least two that are important in the regulation of the neurotransmitter dopamine ( 2009 ) suggesting that dopamine may be important in . Indeed , medications used in the treatment of , such Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 667

as ( Ritalin ) and amphetamine with ( Adderall ) have stimulant qualities and elevate dopamine activity . People with show less dopamine activity in key regions of the brain , especially those associated with motivation and reward ( et , 2009 ) which provides support to the theory that dopamine deficits may be a vital factor in the development this disorder ( et , 2007 ) Brain imaging studies have shown that children with exhibit abnormalities in their frontal lobes , an area in which dopamine is in abundance . Compared to children without , those with appear to have smaller frontal lobe volumes , and they show less frontal lobe activation when performing mental tasks ( et , 2017 ) Recall that one of the functions of the frontal lobes is to inhibit our behavior . Thus , abnormalities in this region may go a long way toward explaining the hyperactive , uncontrolled behavior of . Many parents attribute their child hyperactivity to sugar . A statistical review of 16 studies , however , concluded that sugar consumption has no effect at all on the behavioral and cognitive performance of children ( Wilson , White , 1995 ) Additionally , although food additives have been shown to increase hyperactivity in children , the effect is rather small ( et , 2007 ) Numerous studies , however , have shown a significant relationship between exposure to nicotine in cigarette smoke during the prenatal period and ( Linnet et , 2003 et , 2019 ) Maternal smoking during pregnancy is also associated with the development of more severe symptoms of the disorder ( 2013 ) Additionally , low birth weight and prematurity have been correlated with ( et , 2017 ) Treatment for Recommended treatment for includes behavioral interventions , cognitive behavioral therapy , parent and teacher education , recreational programs , and lifestyle changes , 668 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

such as getting more sleep ( Clay , 2013 ) For some children , medication is prescribed . Parents are often concerned that stimulant medication may result in their child acquiring a substance use disorder . However , research using longitudinal studies has demonstrated that children diagnosed with who received pharmacological treatment had a lower risk for substance abuse problems than those children who did not receive medication ( 2003 ) The risk of substance abuse problems appears to be even greater for those with who are and also exhibit antisocial tendencies ( Marshal , 2006 ) Is the prevalence rate of increasing ?

Many people believe that the rates of have increased in recent years , and there is evidence to support this contention . In a recent study , investigators found that the prevalence of among children ( years old ) in the United States increased by 22 during a period , from in 2003 to in 2007 ( 2010 ) may be by doctors who are too quick to medicate children as behavior treatment . There is also greater awareness of now than in the past . Nearly everyone has heard of , and most parents and teachers are aware of its key symptoms . Thus , parents may be quick to take their children to a doctor if they believe their child possesses these symptoms , or teachers may be more likely now than in the past to notice the symptoms and refer the child for evaluation . Further , the use of computers , video games , iPhones , and other electronic devices has become pervasive among children in the early century , and these devices could potentially shorten children attention spans . Thus , what might seem like inattention to some parents and teachers could simply reflect exposure to too much technology . Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 669

Children with Disabilities Legislation Since the political and social attitudes have moved increasingly toward including people with disabilities into a wide variety of regular activities . In the United States , the shift is illustrated clearly in the Federal legislation that was enacted during this time . Three major laws were passed that guaranteed the rights of persons with disabilities , and of children and students with disabilities in particular . The third law has had the biggest impact on education . Rehabilitation Act of 1973 , Section 504 This law , the first of its kind , required that individuals with disabilities be accommodated in any program or activity that receives Federal funding ( 1973 ) Although this law was not intended specifically for education , in practice it has protected students rights in some activities ( for older students ) and in some child care or care programs ( for younger students ) If those programs receive Federal funding of any kind , the programs are not allowed to exclude children or youths with disabilities , and they have to find reasonable ways to accommodate the individuals disabilities . Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ( or ADA ) This legislation also prohibited discrimination on the basis of disability , just as Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act had done ( 1990 ) Although the ADA also applies to all people ( not just to students ) its provisions are more specific and stronger than those of Section 504 . In particular , ADA extends to all employment and jobs , not just those receiving Federal funding . It also specifically requires accommodations to be made in public facilities such as with buses , restrooms , and telephones . ADA legislation is therefore responsible for some of the minor renovations in schools that you may have noticed in recent years , like doors , ramps , and restrooms , and public telephones with volume controls . 670 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ( or IDEA ) As its name implied , this legislation was more focused on education than either Section 504 or ADA . It was first passed in 1975 , in 2004 ( 2004 ) and most recently amended in 2015 through Public Law , as the Every Student Succeeds Act ( United States Department of Education , 2017 ) In its current form , the law guarantees the following rights related to education for anyone with a disability from birth to age 21 . The first two influence schooling in general , but the last three affect the work of classroom teachers rather directly Free , appropriate education An individual or an individual family should not have to pay for education simply because the individual has a disability , and the educational program should be truly educational , not merely or babysitting the person . Due process In case of disagreements between an individual with a disability and the schools or other professionals , there must be procedures for resolving the disagreements that are fair and accessible to all parties , including the person himself or herself or the persons representative . A fair evaluation of performance in spite of disability Tests or other evaluations should not assume skills that a person with a disability can not reasonably be expected to have , such as holding a pencil , hearing or seeing questions , working quickly , or understanding and speaking orally . Evaluation procedures should be modified to allow for these differences . This provision of the law applies both to evaluations made by teachers and to or testing programs . Education in the least restrictive environment Education for someone with a disability should provide as many educational opportunities and options for the person as possible , both in the short term and in the long term . In Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 671

practice , this requirement has meant including students in regular classrooms and school activities as much as possible , though often not totally . An individualized educational program ( Given that every disability is unique , instructional planning for a person with a disability should be unique or individualized as well . In practice this provision has led to classroom teachers planning individualized programs jointly with other professionals ( like reading specialists , psychologists , or medical personnel ) as part of a team . Evaluation and diagnosis can be the first step in helping provide children with disabilities the type of instruction and resources that will benefit them educationally , but diagnosis and labeling also have social implications . It is important to consider that children can be misdiagnosed and that once a child has received a diagnostic label , the child , teachers , and family members may tend to interpret actions of the child through that label . The label can also influence the child . Consider , for example , a child who is misdiagnosed as learning disabled . That child may expect to have difficulties in school , lack confidence , and because of these expectations experience trouble . This prophecy or tendency to act in such a way as to make what you predict will happen , will come true . This calls our attention to the power that labels can have whether or not they are accurately applied . It is also important to consider that children difficulties can change over time a child who has problems in school , may improve later or may live under circumstances as an adult where the problem ( such as a delay in math skills or reading skills ) is no longer relevant . That person , however , will still have a label as learning disabled . It should be recognized that the distinction between abnormal and normal behavior is not always clear some abnormal behavior in children is fairly common . 672 Chapter 17 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

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