Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part VIII Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood

PART DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Learning Objectives I Explore and connect Psychosocial , Cognitive , and Psychosexual Development I Explore and connect another Theory , Approach , or Perspective to work in critical thinking skills for client assessments I Exploring important aspects of a experience and ability to justify why they are important Development in Middle Childhood 599

Vignette Monty is an boy living with his mother , Foley , and maternal grandmother , Livia , in a small bedroom apartment in the city . Foley was 15 when she had Monty and did not finish high school . Both she and her mother Livia work at a factory nearby their apartment so one of them can be home to provide care for Monty . Monty has never met his father and knows little about him . Recently Foley has been more with her mother about how Livia is becoming less patient A with Monty and has begun my locking him in his room when he is being disruptive . Monty has done fairly well in school until this past year . He has always been a high energy child but had been able to respond to his teachers majority of the time when redirected . Over the past several weeks Monty has demonstrated increased struggles with , aggression , and fighting with his peers . Foley has been called to meet with the school Social Worker to discuss these concerns . Foley meets with the school Social Worker next and reports how Monty has always been a very active and impulsive child , not paying much attention to his surroundings or personal space of others . Foley describes Monty as the Energizer bunny he never stops , always running around , crashing into things and making a mess wherever he goes . I have a hard time getting him to listen too , and I usually end up spanking him to make him stop . My mom also spanks him , 600 Development in Middle Childhood

but she says it does always work so she started locking him in his room until he stops we ve been fighting more recently about this and I noticed he seems to be having a harder time too . She shares some of their history with the Social Worker , such as being a teenage mother , Monty father never being around , and increasing struggles with her mother punishments for Monty , mainly locking him in his room . The Social Worker explored Foley thoughts on connecting Monty to mental health service as a support which could be provided at school . Foley reports feeling some anxiety with this as she does not know much about mental health services and fears Monty will simply be medicated like a Zombie . The Social Worker assures Foley this will not be the case as the focus will be how to support Monty with emotional and behavioral interventions , and if medication was something recommended , they would be able to discuss benefits possible side effects with Foley having the final say in the decision . Foley agrees to give it a try , couldn hurt anything , could it ?

Critical Thinking . What stage of Theory of Cognitive Development is the client currently in ?

Are they meeting expectations of this stage ?

Examples ?

Are they demonstrating any delays in this stage ?

Examples ?

What stage of Theory of Psychosocial Development are they currently in ?

Are they meeting the goals of this stage ?

Examples ?

Are they demonstrating any struggles with their goals in this stage ?

Examples ?

Development in Middle Childhood 601 . What theory , approach , or perspective from previous Dimensions ( PIE , Sociocultural , or Social Change ) would you use to assess this client ?

Why ?

What do you feel are the most important aspects ( physical development , attachment , sexual development , etc ) to consider for this client ?

Why ?

References , 2019 ) Dimensions of human behavior ( Sixth edition ) Sage Publications , 602 Development in Middle Childhood Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood Summarize the overall physical growth Describe the changes in brain maturation Describe the positive effects of sports Describe reasons for a lack of participation in youth sports Explain current trends regarding being overweight in childhood , the negative consequences of excess weight , the lack of recognition of being overweight , and interventions to normalize weight Overall Physical Growth Rates of growth generally slow during these years . Typically , a child will gain about pounds a year and grow about inches per year ( 2000 ) They also tend to slim down and gain muscle strength and lung capacity making it possible to engage in strenuous physical activity for long periods of time . The beginning of the growth spurt , which occurs prior to puberty , begins two years earlier for females than males The mean age for the beginning of the growth spurt for girls is nine , while for Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood 603

boys it is eleven . Children of this age tend to sharpen their abilities to perform both gross motor skills , such as riding a bike , and fine motor skills , such as cutting their fingernails . In gross motor skills ( involving large muscles ) boys typically outperform girls , while with fine motor skills ( small muscles ) girls outperform the boys . These improvements in motor skills are related to brain growth and experience during this developmental period . Brain Growth Two major brain growth spurts occur during childhood ( Riser , 1995 ) Between ages and , significant improvements in fine motor skills and hand coordination are noted . Then between 10 and 12 years of age , the frontal lobes become more developed and improvements in logic , planning , and memory are evident ( van der , 1994 ) Myelination is one factor responsible for these growths . From age to 12 , the nerve cells in the association areas of the brain , that is those areas where sensory , motor , and intellectual functioning connect , become almost completely myelinated ( Johnson , 2005 ) This myelination contributes to increases in information processing speed and the child reaction time . The hippocampus , responsible for transferring information from the to term memory , also show increases in myelination resulting in improvements in memory functioning ( Rolls , 2000 ) Children in middle to late childhood are also better able to plan , coordinate activity using both left and right hemispheres of the brain , and to control emotional outbursts . Paying attention is also improved as the prefrontal cortex matures ( Thomas , 2013 ) 604 Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood

Sports Middle childhood seems to be a great time to introduce children to organized sports , and in fact , many parents do . Nearly million children play soccer in the United States ( United States Youth Soccer , 2012 ) This activity promises to help children build social skills , improve athletically and learn a sense of competition . However , it has been suggested that the emphasis on competition and athletic skill can be counterproductive and lead children to grow tired of the game and want to quit . In many respects , it appears that children activities are no longer children activities once adults become involved and approach the games as adults rather than children . The Soccer Federation recently advised coaches to reduce the amount of drilling engaged in during practice and to allow children to play more freely and to choose their own positions . The hope is that this will build on their love of the game and foster their natural talents . Sports are important for children . Children participation in sports has been linked to Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood 605

Higher levels of satisfaction with family and overall quality of life in children Improved physical and emotional development Better academic performance Yet , a study on children sports in the United States ( 81 , 2008 ) has found that gender , poverty , location , ethnicity , and disability can limit opportunities to engage in sports . Girls were more likely to have never participated in any type of sport ( see Figure ) They also found that fathers may not be providing their daughters as much support as they do their sons . While boys rated their fathers as their biggest mentor who taught them the most about sports , girls rated coaches and physical education teachers as their key mentors . and also found that children in suburban neighborhoods had a much higher participation of sports than boys and girls living in rural or urban centers . In addition , Caucasian girls and boys participated in organized sports at higher rates than minority children ( see Figure ) Figure All In Spain Pram by Gain Girls Boys MAI lull 606 Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood

Figure Percent of Students Participating in Organized Sports , by Gender , Race , and Ethnicity Pawn ! II Spurn . by Call . Inc and many Girls Boys I ( Jill ! I ( QUAD ! I I III ! Mutton I ' GOOM I I MBA mu in , sun nun nu an . II on Finally , and asked children who had dropped out of organized sports why they left . For both girls and boys , the number one answer was that it was no longer any fun ( see Table ) According to the Sport Policy and Research Collaborative ( 2013 ) almost in children drop out of organized sports , and while there are many factors involved in the decisions to drop out , one suggestion has been the lack of training that coaches of sports receive may be contributing to this attrition ( Smith , 1992 ) Several studies have found that when coaches receive proper training , the rate is about instead of the usual 30 ( Cote , 81 , 2005 , 2013 ) Table Top Reasons Dropped Out or Stopped Playing Team Sports Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood 607

Tail Top Oi Playing spent in . 29 . tank ! 23 . club or coal in In wort a ! do ! um um um ( II my mi . lulu . In ! so many mum on an Ir . gnu . im in um palm am man ! A ( I A . In Welcome to the world of According to Discover ( 2017 ) is a form of competition with the medium being video games . Players use computers or specific video game consoles to play video games against each other . In addition to playing themselves , children my just watch others play the video games . The recent ( 2016 ) report on the State of Play in the United States highlights a disturbing trend . One in four children between the ages of and 16 rate playing computer games with their friends as a form of exercise . Over half of males and about 20 of females , aged , say they are fans of . Since 2008 there has also been a downward trend in the number of sports children are engaged in , despite a body of research evidence that suggests that specializing in only one activity can increase the chances of injury , while playing multiple sports is protective ( 2016 ) A University of Wisconsin study found that 49 of athletes who specialized in a sport experienced an injury compared with 23 of those who played multiple sports ( 2016 ) 608 Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood

Physical Education For many children , physical education in school is a key component in introducing children to sports . After years of schools cutting back on physical education programs , there has been a turn around , prompted by concerns over childhood obesity and the related health issues . Despite these changes , currently only the state of Oregon and the District of Columbia meet PE guidelines of a minimum of 150 minutes per week of physical activity in elementary school and 225 minutes in middle school ( 2016 ) Childhood Obesity The decreased participation in school physical education and youth sports is just one of many factors that has led to an increase in children being overweight or obese . The current measurement for determining excess weight is the Body Mass Index ( which expresses the relationship of height to weight . According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( children whose is at or above the percentile for their age are considered overweight , while children who are at or above the percentile are considered obese ( Lu , 2016 ) In approximately of and of olds were obese ( Carroll , Ogden , 2017 ) Excess weight and obesity in children are associated with a variety of medical and cognitive conditions including high blood pressure , insulin resistance , depression , and lower academic achievement ( Lu , 2016 ) Being overweight has also been linked to impaired brain functioning , which includes deficits in executive functioning , working memory , mental flexibility , and decision making ( Liang , 2014 ) Children who ate more saturated fats performed worse on relational memory tasks , while eating a diet high in fatty acids promoted relational memory skills Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood 609

( 2014 ) Using animal studies et al . 2013 ) found that large amounts of processed sugars and saturated fat weakened the barrier , especially in the hippocampus . This can make the brain more vulnerable to harmful substances that can impair its functioning . Another important executive functioning skill is controlling impulses and delaying gratification . Children who are overweight show less inhibitory control than normal weight children , which may make it more difficult for them to avoid unhealthy foods ( Lu , 2016 ) Overall , being overweight as a child increases the risk for cognitive decline as one ages . Figure Being Overweight can be 11 Lifelong Struggle Being can be a struggle ' A growing concern is the lack of recognition from parents that children are overweight or obese . 2015 ) referred to this as . Black , Park and ( 2015 ) found that parents in the United Kingdom ( UK ) only recognized their children as obese when they were above the percentile while the official off for obesity is at the percentile . and 610 Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood

( 2010 ) surveyed 439 parents and found that 75 of parents of overweight children said the child had a normal weight and 50 of parents of obese children said the child had a normal weight . For these parents , overweight was considered normal and obesity was considered normal or a little heavy . and Miller ( 2009 ) reported on several studies from the United Kingdom , Australia , Italy , and the United States , and in all locations , parents were more likely to misperceive their children weight . Black et al . 2015 ) concluded that as the average weight of children rises , what parents consider normal also rises . Needless to say , if parents can not identify if their children are overweight they will not be able to intervene and assist their children with proper weight management . An added concern is that the children themselves are not accurately identifying if they are overweight . In a United States sample of , more than 80 of overweight boys and 70 of overweight girls their weight as normal ( Hughes , 2014 ) Also noted was that as the socioeconomic status of the children rose , the frequency of these misconceptions decreased . It appeared that families with more resources were more conscious of what defines a healthy weight . Children who are overweight tend to be rejected , ridiculed , teased and bullied by others ( 2018 ) This can certainly be damaging to their and popularity . In addition , obese children run the risk of suffering orthopedic problems such as knee injuries , and they have an increased risk of heart disease and stroke in adulthood ( Lu , 2016 ) It is hard for a child who is obese to become a adult . In addition , the number of cases of pediatric diabetes has risen dramatically in recent years . Behavioral interventions , including training children to overcome impulsive behavior , are being researched to help overweight children ( Lu , 2016 ) Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood 611

Figure Practicing inhibition has been shown to strengthen the ability to resist unhealthy foods . Parents can help their overweight children the best when they are warm and supportive without using shame or guilt . Parents can also act like the frontal lobe until it is developed by helping them make correct food choices and praising their efforts ( Liang , et , 2014 ) Research also shows that exercise , especially aerobic exercise , can help improve cognitive functioning in overweight children ( Lu , 2016 ) Parents should take caution against emphasizing diet alone to avoid the development of any obsession about dieting that can lead to eating disorders . Instead , increasing a childs activity level is most helpful . In 2018 the American Psychological Association ( APA ) developed a clinical practice guideline that recommends , multicomponent behavioral interventions to treat obesity and overweight in children to 18 ( Weir , 2019 ) The guidelines recommend counseling on diet , physical activity and teaching 612 Chapter 16 Physical Development in Middle Childhood

parents strategies for goal setting , monitoring children behaviors , and modeling positive parental behaviors , 32 ) Early research results have shown success using this model compared to controls . Because there is no quick fix for weight loss , the program recommends 26 contact hours with the family . Unfortunately , for many families cost , location , and time commitment make it difficult for them to receive the interventions . APA has recommended that behavioral treatment could be delivered in primary care offices to encourage greater . APA also recommend that schools and communities need to offer more nutritious meals to children and limit sodas and unhealthy foods . References , 1994 ) Psychological testing and assessment ( Needham Heights , MA and Bacon . 2009 ) Working memory , but not IQ , predicts subsequent learning in children with learning difficulties . European Journal of Psychological Assessment , 25 , Lau , 2013 ) Computerized working memory training Can lead to gains in cognitive skills in students ?

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