Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part VII Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

PART DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Learning Objectives I Explore and connect Psychosocial , Cognitive , and Psychosexual Development I Explore and connect another Theory , Approach , or Perspective to work in critical thinking skills for client assessments I Exploring important aspects of a experience and ability to justify why they are important Development in Early Childhood 461

Vignette , has been demonstrating increased emotional and behavioral issues at her preschool . Her parents , and Taylor have been called to meet with the Director to discuss these concerns . They report the same issues occurring at home , stating We have no idea why she been having such a hard time , it was like she went to sleep our sweet girl one night and woke up a completely different child the next morning , refusing to listen , tantrums anytime she doesnt get her way , Photo by Sarah Louise on she just fights us on everything . splash They report they adopted when she was an infant and had minimal issues with her until several weeks ago when they report the change in behavior occurring . The Director discussed increased struggles with at school , also refusing to comply with requests from her teachers and showing increased aggression with her peers with hitting and biting , and possible need to dismiss from their program if her disruptive behaviors did not stop . and Taylor admit they have really struggled with what to do , so we usually just end up letting her have her way because we get so tired and frustrated with fighting with her we just do know what to do . The Director explores a referral for mental health services that could be provided at the school , discussing how professional interventions may be needed due to her history and the Taylors agree to an initial assessment . 462 Development in Early Childhood

and Taylor meet with a Licensed Certified Social Worker ( for an initial assessment . He greets them warmly and then invites to choose some toys to play with while he speaks with her parents . seems uncertain at first and slowly begins to explore the toys in the room . The Social Worker invites and Taylor to share their story and concerns while plays and they report their history of struggling to conceive and how happy they were to finally have a child when came into their lives . They discussed how everything was going very well until the past several weeks when the emotional and behavioral struggles began . The Social Worker asked if any changes had occurred around the time and Taylor noticed change in behavior and they reported none they could think of . The Social Worker then explored any information they were given about and her biological before she came into their care . They reported minimal information was given but remembering hearing her biological mother had struggled with drug use before becoming pregnant but had reported stopping use of all drugs except for marijuana while pregnant . Taylor states her biological mother had also reported struggles with caring for her first few months but I don really know what that means . They reported not thinking this had affected as she had not had any major issues during her first couple of years with them but are starting to wonder what she may have experienced in her first several months before coming to live with them . During this time , the Social Worker notices engages in some aggressive play with various people figures and hitting toys together . He also notices she is rocking back and forth at times in between her play . She also gets increasingly louder when she hears her parents speaking . The Social Worker reflects this and sticks her tongue out at him . Development in Early Childhood 463

Critical Thinking . What stage of Theory of Cognitive Development is the client currently in ?

Are they meeting expectations of this stage ?

Examples ?

Are they demonstrating any delays in this stage ?

Examples ?

What stage of Theory of Psychosocial Development are they currently in ?

Are they meeting the goals of this stage ?

Examples ?

Are they demonstrating any struggles with their goals in this stage ?

Examples ?

What theory , approach , or perspective from previous Dimensions ( PIE , Sociocultural , or Social Change ) would you use to assess this client ?

Why ?

What do you feel are the most important aspects ( physical development , attachment , sexual development , etc ) to consider for this client ?

Why ?

References , 2019 ) Dimensions of human behavior ( Sixth edition ) Sage Publications , 464 Development in Early Childhood Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood Summarize the overall physical growth Describe the changes in brain maturation Describe the changes in sleep Summarize the changes in gross and motor skills Describe when a child is ready for toilet training Describe sexual development Identify nutritional concerns Overall Physical Growth Children between the ages of two and six years tend to grow about inches in height and gain about to pounds in weight each year . Just as in infancy , growth occurs in spurts rather than continually . According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( 2000 ) the average weighs between 23 and 28 pounds and stands between 33 and 35 inches tall . The average Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 465

weighs between 40 and 50 pounds and is about 44 to 47 inches in height . The is still very similar to a toddler with a large head , large stomach , short arms , and legs . By the time the child reaches age , however , the torso has lengthened , and body proportions have become more like those of adults . This growth rate is slower than that of infancy and is accompanied by a reduced appetite between the ages of and . This change can sometimes be surprising to parents and lead to the development of poor eating habits . However , children between the ages of and need to calories , while children between the ages of and need to calories ( Mayo Clinic , Figure . 466 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

Brain Maturation Brain weight The brain is about 75 percent of its adult weight by three years of age . By age , it is at 95 percent of its adult weight ( 2006 ) Myelination and the development of dendrites continue to occur in the cortex and as it does , we see a corresponding change in what the child is capable of doing . Greater development in the prefrontal cortex , the area of the brain behind the forehead that helps us to think , strategize , and control attention and emotion , makes it increasingly possible to inhibit emotional outbursts and understand how to play games . Understanding the game , thinking ahead , and coordinating movement improves with practice and myelination . Growth in the Hemispheres and Corpus Between ages and , the left hemisphere of the brain grows dramatically . This side of the brain or hemisphere is typically involved in language skills . The right hemisphere continues to grow throughout early childhood and is involved in tasks that require spatial skills , such as recognizing shapes and patterns . The corpus callosum , a dense band of fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain , contains approximately 200 million nerve fibers that connect the hemispheres ( 2011 ) The corpus callosum is illustrated in Figure . Figure Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 467

Figure Corpus RIGHT HEMISPHERE CALLOSUM CHOROID corpus callosum is located a couple of inches below longitudinal fissure , which runs the length of the brain and separates the two cerebral hemispheres ( Garrett , 2015 ) Because two hemispheres carry out different functions , they communicate with each other and integrate their activities through the corpus callosum . Additionally , because incoming information is directed toward one hemisphere , such as visual information from the left eye being directed to the right hemisphere , the corpus callosum shares this information with the other hemisphere . The corpus callosum undergoes a growth spurt between ages and , and this results in improved coordination between right and left hemisphere tasks . For example , in comparison to other individuals , children younger than demonstrate difficulty coordinating an Etch A Sketch toy because their corpus callosum is not developed enough to integrate the movements of both hands ( 2016 ) 468 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

Motor Skill Development Early childhood is the time period when most children acquire the basic skills for locomotion , such as running , jumping , and skipping , and object control skills , such as throwing , catching , and kicking ( Clark , 1994 ) Children continue to improve their gross motor skills as they run and jump . Fine motor skills are also being refined in activities , such as pouring water into a container , drawing , coloring , and buttoning coats and using scissors . The table highlights some of the changes in motor skills during early childhood between and years of age . The development of greater coordination of muscle groups and finer precision can be seen during this time period . Thus , average may be able to run with slightly better coordination than they managed as a toddler , yet they would have difficulty peddling a tricycle , something the typical can do . We see similar changes in fine motor skills with who no longer struggle to put on their clothes , something they may have had problems with two years earlier . Motor skills continue to develop into middle childhood , but for those in early childhood , a play that deliberately involves these skills is emphasized . Figure 43 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 469

Children Art Children art highlights many developmental changes . 1969 ) noted that children drawings underwent several transformations . Starting with about 20 different types of scribbles at age , children move on to experimenting with the placement of scribbles on the page . By age they are using the basic structure of scribbles to create shapes and are beginning to combine these shapes to create more complex images . By or children are creating images that are more recognizable representations of the world . These changes are a function of improvement in motor skills , perceptual development , and cognitive understanding of the world ( Cote . 2007 ) The drawing of tadpoles ( see Figure ) is a pervasive feature of young children drawings of self and others . Tadpoles emerge in children drawing at about the age of and have been observed in the drawings of young children around the world ( Keller , 2015 ) but there are cultural variations in the size , number of facial features , and emotional expressions displayed . et al . found that children from Western ( urban areas of Germany and Sweden ) and urban educated 470 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

Western ( urban areas of Turkey , Costa and ) drew larger images , with more facial detail and more positive emotional expressions , while those from rural ( rural areas of and India ) depicted themselves as smaller , with less facial details and a more neutral emotional expression . The authors suggest that cultural norms of traditionally rural cultures , which emphasize the social group rather than the individual , maybe one of the factors for the smaller size of the figures compared to the larger figures from children in the Western cultures which emphasize the individual . Table IT ' III In ! I DUKE nouns Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 471 I , can

Toilet Training Toilet training typically occurs during the first two years of early childhood ( months ) Some children show interest by age , but others may not be ready until months later . The average age for girls to be toilet trained is 29 months and for boys , it is 31 months , and 98 of children are trained by 36 months ( Fitzgerald , 2010 ) The child age is not as important as physical and emotional readiness . If it started too early , it might take longer to train a child . If a child resists being trained or is not successful after a few weeks , it is best to take a break and try again later . Most children master daytime bladder control first , typically within two to three months of consistent toilet training . However , nap and nighttime training might take months or even years . Figure According to the Mayo Clinic ( the following questions can help parents determine if a child is ready for toilet training Does your child seem interested in the potty chair or toilet , or 472 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

in wearing underwear ?

Can your understand and follow basic directions ?

Does your chi complain about wet or dirty diapers ?

Does your chi tell you through words , facial expressions or posture when he or she needs to go ?

Does your chi stay dry for periods of two hours or longer during the day ?

Can your pull down his or her pants and pull them up again ?

Can your sit on and rise from a potty chair ?

Some children ex ) elimination disorders that may require intervention by the child pediatrician or a trained mental health practitioner . Elimination disorders include enuresis , or the repeated voiding of urine into bed or clothes ( involuntary or intentional ) and , the re ) eated passage of feces into inappropriate places ( involuntary or intentional ) American Psychiatric Association , 2013 ) The prevalence enuresis is for , for and approximately for those 15 years of age or older . Around of olds have , and it is more common in males than females . Sleep During early childhood , there is a wide variation in the number of hours of sleep recommended per day . For example , olds may still need hours per day , while a may only need hours . The National Sleep Foundation 2015 recommendations based on age are listed in Figure . Figure Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 473

gun AA Sexual Development in Early Childhood Historically , children have been thought of as innocent or incapable of sexual arousal ( Aries , 1962 ) Yet , the physical dimension of sexual arousal is present from birth . However , to associate the elements of seduction , power , love , or lust that is part of the adult meanings of sexuality would be inappropriate . Sexuality begins in childhood as a response to physical states and sensation and can not be interpreted as similar to that of adults in any way ( Carroll , 2007 ) Infancy Boys and girls are capable of erections and vaginal lubrication even before birth ( 1981 ) Arousal can signal overall physical contentment and stimulation that accompanies feeding or warmth . Infants begin to explore their bodies and touch their genitals as soon as they have sufficient motor skills . This stimulation is for comfort or to relieve tension rather than to reach orgasm ( Carroll , 2007 ) 474 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

Early Childhood is common in early childhood for both boys and girls . Curiosity about the body and about others bodies is a natural part of early childhood as well . As children grow , they are more likely to show their genitals to siblings or peers , and to take off their clothes and touch each other ( 1997 ) Masturbation is common for both boys and girls . Boys are often shown by other boys how to masturbate , but girls tend to find out accidentally . Additionally , boys masturbate more often and touch themselves more openly than do girls ( Schwartz , 1999 ) Hopefully , parents respond to this without an undue alarm and without making the child feel guilty about their bodies . Instead , messages about what is going on and the appropriate time and place for such activities help the child learn what is appropriate . Nutritional Concerns In addition to those in early childhood have a smaller appetite , their parents may notice a general reticence to try new foods , or a preference for certain foods often served or eaten in a particular way . Some of these changes can be traced back to the just right ( or ) phenomenon that is common in early childhood . Many young children desire consistency and may be upset if there are even slight changes to their daily routines . They may like to line up their toys or other objects or place them in symmetric patterns . They may arrange the objects until they feel just right . Many young children have a set bedtime ritual and a strong preference for certain clothes , toys or games . All these tendencies tend to wane as children approach middle childhood , and the familiarity of such ritualistic behaviors seem to bring a sense of security and a general reduction in childhood fears and anxiety ( Evans , Gray , 1999 Evans , 2015 ) Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 475

Malnutrition due to insufficient food is not common in developed nations , like the United States , yet many children lack a balanced diet . Added sugars and solid fats contribute to 40 of daily calories for children and teens in the US . Approximately half of these empty calories come from six sources soda , fruit drinks , dairy desserts , grain desserts , pizza , and whole milk ( 2015 ) Caregivers need to keep in mind that they are setting up taste preferences at this age . Young children who grow accustomed to a high fat , very sweet and salty flavors may have trouble eating foods that have subtler flavors , such as fruits and vegetables . Consider the following advice ( See Box ) about establishing eating patterns for years to come ( Rice , 1997 ) Notice that keeping mealtime pleasant , providing sound nutrition and not engaging in power struggles over food are the main goals Figure Nutritious Lunch 476 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

Tips for Establishing Healthy Eating Patterns Recognize that appetite varies . Children may eat well at one meal and have no appetite at another . Rather than seeing this as a problem , it may help to realize that appetites do vary . Continue to provide good nutrition , but do not worry excessively if the child does not eat at a particular mea . Keep it pleasant . This tip is designed to help caregivers create a positive atmosphere during mea time . Mealtimes should not be the time for arguments or expressing tensions . You do not want the child to have painful memories of mea times together or have nervous stomachs and problems eating and digesting food due to stress . No chefs . While it is fine to prepare that children enjoy , preparing a different mea for each child or family member sets up an unrealistic expectation from others . Children probably do best when they are hungry , and a mea is ready . Limiting snacks rather than allowing children to graze can help create an appetite for what is being served . Limit choices . If you give your young child choices , make sure that you give them one or two specific choices rather than asking What would you like for lunch ?

If given an open choice , children may change their minds or ask for something that is not available or appropriate . Serve balanced meals . This tip encourages Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 477 caregivers to serve balanced meals . A box of macaroni and cheese is not a balanced meal . Meals prepared at home tend to have better nutritional value than fast food or frozen dinners . Prepared foods tend to be higher in fat and sugar content , as these ingredients enhance taste and profit margin because fresh food is often and less profitable . However , preparing fresh food at home is not costly . It does , however , require more activity . Preparing meals and including the children in kitchen chores can provide a fun and memorable experience . Do not bribe . Bribing a child to eat vegetables by promising desert is not a good idea . The child will likely find a way to get the desert without eating the vegetables ( by whining or fidgeting , perhaps , until the caregiver gives in ) In addition , bribery teaches the child that some foods are better than others . Children tend to naturally enjoy a variety of foods until they are taught that some are considered less desirable than others . Most important is not to force your child to eat or fight overeating food . References , Howe , 2013 ) Power in sibling conflict during early and middle childhood . Social Development , 22 , 754 . 478 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

, 2019 ) risk of neuropsychiatric disease after exposure to infection in utero . JAMA Psychiatry , 76 ( American Academy of Pediatrics . 2015 ) Gender identity development in children . Retrieved from English American Academy of Pediatrics . 2016 ) Media and young minds . Retrieved from content 138 American Psychiatric Association . 2013 ) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , edition ( Washington , Author . American Psychological Association . 2019 ) Immigration . Retrieved from ( Aries , 1962 ) Centuries of childhood A social history of family life . New York . Armor , 2015 ) Head Start or false start . USA Today Magazine . Retrieved from magazine Autism Genome Project Consortium . 2007 ) Mapping autism risk loci using genetic linkage and Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 479

chromosomal . Nature Genetics , 39 , Wiggins , Dowling , 2018 ) Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged and developmental disabilities monitoring network , 11 sites , United States , 2014 . Surveillance Summary , 67 ( No . doi , A . 1997 ) The exercise of control . New York Freeman . 2015 ) Report Scant scientific evidence for Head Start programs effectiveness . News and World Report . Retrieved from news ( 2015 08 03 , 1971 ) Current patterns of parental authority . Developmental Psychology Monograph , part . 2013 ) Authoritative parenting revisited History and current status . In , Sheffield , Authoritative parenting Synthesizing and discipline for optimal child development ( 34 ) Washington , American Psychological Association . 1981 ) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing . Psychological Review , 88 , Berk , 2007 ) Development through the life span ( Boston and Bacon . 480 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

, Marks , 2005 ) Sustained attention and response inhibition in young children at risk for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 46 ( 11 ) 1229 . 2011 ) Coordination of executive functions in monolingual and bilingual children . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 110 , Martin , 2005 ) Bilingualism across the lifespan The rise and fall of inhibitory control . International Journal of Bilingualism , Muller , 2009 ) Parental scaffolding and the development of executive function . New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development , 123 , 2007 ) Developmental theory Exploring and reducing children social stereotyping and prejudice . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 16 , Birch , Bloom , 2003 ) Children are cursed An asymmetric bias in attribution . Psychological Science , 14 ( Sterling , Lee , 2000 ) How sexually dimorphic are we ?

Review and synthesis . American Journal of Human Biology , 12 , Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 481 ( 2011 ) Speed of processing , anticipation , inhibition and working memory in . Developmental Science , 14 , 2010 ) Toilet training . University of Michigan Health System . Retrieved from topics Brody , Stoneman , McCoy , 1994 ) Forecasting sibling relationships in early adolescence from child temperament and family processes in middle childhood . Child development , 65 , Brown , Ho , 2008 ) Young children psychological selves Convergence with maternal reports of child personality . Social Development , 17 , Bureau of Labor Statistics . 2019 ) Employment characteristics of . Retrieved from , A . 1999 ) Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation . Psychological Review , 106 ( 2002 ) Report to the legislature on the principal findings from the epidemiology of autism in California A comprehensive pilot study . Retrieved from residents speaks foreign language at home . Retrieved , 2015 ) One in five 482 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

from sites Carroll , 2007 ) Sexuality now Embracing diversity ( Belmont , CA . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2000 ) 2000 Growth Charts for the United States Methods and Development . Retrieved from data series 11 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2012 ) Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders , autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network , 14 sites , United States , 2008 . Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries , 61 ( Retrieved from . ov Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2015 ) Nutrition and health of young people . Retrieved from nutrition Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2019 ) About adverse childhood experiences . from ( Chang , Brown , 2011 ) Gender biases in early number exposure to children . Journal of Language and Social Psychology , 30 ( Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 483

, Shuler , 2010 ) Learning Is there an app for that ?

Investigations of young children usage and learning with mobile devices and apps . New York The Joan Ganz Center at Sesame Workshop . Retrieved from uploads files final , 2009 ) The effects of infant media usage What do we know and what should we learn ?

Acta , 98 , Clark , 1994 ) Motor development . In ( Ed . Encyclopedia of human behavior ( San Diego Academic Press . Lindsey , 2003 ) interactions and preschool children perceptions of self and peers . Early Childhood Development Care , 173 , Cote , 2007 ) Preschoolers feature placement on own and others person drawings . International Journal of Early Years Education , 15 ( Courage , Murphy , 2010 ) When the television is on The impact of directed video on and attention during toy play and on interaction . Infant Behavior and Development , 33 , 188 . Crain , 2005 ) Theories of development concepts and applications ( New Jersey Pearson . De , A . 2007 ) Parental language input 484 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

patterns and childrens bilingual use . Applied , 28 , Price , 2013 ) Increasing exposures to proteins and in vaccines is not associated with risk of autism . The Journal of Pediatrics , 163 , Marsh , Swann , 2005 ) The conceptualization of impulsivity Bipolar disorder and substance abuse . Psychiatric Times , 22 ( Dunn , 1987 ) Development of justification in disputes with mother and sibling . Developmental Psychology , 23 , Dyer , 2006 ) Frequency of parallel , associative , and cooperative play in British children of different economic status . Social Behavior and Personality , 34 ( Economist Data Team . 2017 ) Parents now spend twice as much time with their children as 50 years ago . Retrieved from 2017 11 27 , 2004 ) Perspective taking in children and adults Equivalent egocentrism but differential correction . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 40 , 1982 ) The life cycle completed . NY Norton Company . Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 485

Evans , Gray , 1999 ) The rituals , fears and phobias of young children Insights from development , psychopathology and neurobiology . Child Psychiatry and Human Development , 29 ( Evans , 2015 ) Origins of disorder Developmental and evolutionary perspectives . In and Cohen ( Developmental psychopathology ( edition ) Wiley Sons . doi , Meredith , 2014 ) Parenting influences on executive function in early childhood A review . Child Development Perspectives , Anda , Spitz , Edwards , Marks , 1998 ) Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults The Adverse Childhood Experiences ( ACE ) Study . American Journal of Preventive Medicine , 14 ( 98 ) Lewis , I . Smith , 1990 ) Sexual abuse in a national survey of adult men and women Prevalence , characteristics , and risk factors . Child Abuse and Neglect , 14 ( Frank , 2010 ) Perceived parenting , and general 486 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

efficacy of Iranian American adolescents . Journal of Child Family Studies , 19 , 2018 ) Cognitive psychology In and out of the laboratory ( Thousand Oaks , CA Sage . Garrett , 2015 ) Brain and behavior An introduction to biological psychology ( Thousand Oaks , CA Sage . Champagne , Rouleau , 2011 ) mutations in and in autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia . Human Genetics , 130 , 1991 ) Families and adolescents . In Booth ( Ed . Contemporary families Looking forward , looking back . National Council on Family Relations . Gentile , Walsh , DA . 2002 ) A normative study of family media habits . Applied Developmental Psychology , 23 , 178 . Keller , 2015 ) Cultural perspectives on children tadpole drawings At the interface between representation and production . Frontiers in Psychology , Article doi . 2008 ) Report on physical punishment in the United States What research tell us about its effects on children . Columbus , OH Center for Effective Discipline . Glass , von , 2008 ) Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 487

Development of auditory sensory memory from to years An study . Journal of Neural Transmission , 115 ( 2002 ) Social provisions of real and imaginary relationships in early childhood . Developmental Psychology , 38 , 2006 ) Concepts of real and imaginary friendships in early childhood . Social Development , 15 , 2000 ) Imaginary companions of preschool children . Developmental Psychology , 36 ( Ritter , 1999 ) Electrophysiological evidence of development changes in the duration of auditory sensory memory . Developmental Psychology , 35 , Meyer , Thompson , Hayes , 2008 ) in early childhood Associations with child attachment security and maternal negative affect . Attachment Human Development , 10 ( Wellman , 2012 ) Reconstructing constructivism Causal models , Bayesian learning mechanisms , and the theory theory . Psychological Bulletin , 138 ( Guy , Rogers , Cornish , 2013 ) changes in visual and auditory sustained attention in 488 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

children . Child Neuropsychology , 19 ( Retrieved from Hammer , Castro , 2014 ) The language literacy development of young dual language learners A critical review . Early Child Research Quarterly , 29 ( Pike , 1984 ) The pictorial scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children . Child Development , 55 , Harvard University . 2019 ) Center on the developing child Toxic stress . Retrieved from ( Herrmann , 2015 ) Uniquely human begins at school age . Developmental Science , 18 ( Herrmann , 2015 ) Focusing and shifting attention in human children ( homo sapiens ) and chimpanzees ( pan troglodytes ) Journal of Comparative Psychology , 129 ( Retrieved from ( 2018 ) Bilingual development in children of immigrant families . Child Development Perspectives , 12 ( Howe , Jennings , 2002 ) No ! The lambs can stay out because they got Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 489

cozies Constructive and destructive sibling conflict , pretend play , and social understanding . Child Development , 73 , 1473 . Hughes , 2007 ) Mercury rising . Nature Medicine , 13 , Li , 2008 ) Novel noun and verb learning in Chinese , English , and Japanese children Universality and in novel noun and verb learning . Child Development , 79 , Auld , 2006 ) Animals mix it up too The distribution of among hermaphroditic animals . Evolution , 60 , Jones , Moore , 2015 ) Development of auditory selective attention Why children struggle to hear in noisy environments . Developmental Psychology , 51 ( Retrieved from ( 2016 ) Biological Psychology ( Boston , MA . Gross , 2014 ) Effects of classroom bilingualism on , verbal memory , and word learning in children . Developmental Science , 17 ( 1969 ) Handbook for Child art collection . Washington Editions . Kemple , 1995 ) Shyness and in 490 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

early childhood . Journal of Humanistic Education and Development , 33 ( 2008 ) The society ( Oxford Oxford University Press . Napoleon , 2009 ) Environmental risk factors for autism Do they help or cause de novo genetic mutations that contribute to the disorder ?

Medical Hypotheses , 74 , Choi , 2016 ) Toddlers word learning from contingent and noncontingent video on touch screens . Child Development , 87 ( Murphy , 2009 ) The impact of background television on interaction . Child Development , 80 , 2017 ) Gender stereotypes are messing with your kid . Retrieved from , 1977 ) Class and conformity . Chicago University of Chicago Press . 2011 ) An introduction to brain and behavior ( New York Worth Publishers . Kramer , 1992 ) Becoming a sibling With a little help from my Developmental Psychology , 28 , 2006 ) Brain Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 491

development in children and adolescents Insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging . Neuroscience and Reviews , 30 , 1987 ) Gender segregation in childhood . Advances in Child Development and Behavior , 20 , MacKenzie , 2013 ) Spanking and child development across the first decade of life . Pediatrics , 132 ( Racine , Mori , Tough , 2019 ) Association between screen time and children performance on a developmental screening test . JAMA Pediatrics , 173 ( Prentice , Wilson , 1973 ) Individual and family correlates of imaginary companions in preschool children . Developmental Psychology , 1981 ) Eroticism in infancy and childhood . In Constantine ( Children and sex New findings , new perspectives . Boston Little , Brown . 1978 ) Imaginary play companions of children . In , Brown , Taylor ( theory and the helping profession ( Los Angeles University of Southern California Press . 1991 ) The friend that only I can see A 492 I Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

longitudinal investigation of children imaginary companions . Dissertation , University of Oregon . Mayo Clinic Staff . Nutrition for kids Guidelines for a healthy diet . Retrieved from lifestyle ( Mayo Clinic Staff . Potty training How to get the job done . Retrieved from , Peterson , 2007 ) A longitudinal study of siblings and theory of mind development . Cognitive Development , 22 , Meek , 2013 ) A review of correlations and their implications for autism A conceptual model . Psychological Review , 120 , Ford , Ports , 2018 ) Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences from the 2014 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System in 23 States . Early JAMA Pediatrics , 172 ( 11 ) 2005 ) Multiple voices An introduction ot bilingualism . MA Publishers . 2008 ) The effects of childhood stress on health across the Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 493

lifespan . United States , Center for Disease Control , National Center for Injury Prevention and Control ) Atlanta , Casey , 2011 ) Willpower ' over the life span Decomposing regulation . Social Cognitive Affective Neuroscience , 1972 ) Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 21 , 2008 ) Cognitive development perspectives . New York Lawrence Associates . National Association for the Education of Young Children . 2016 ) The 10 program standards . Retrieved from ( National Institute of Child Health and Human Development . 2006 ) The study of early child care ( Pub . No . 4318 ) Washington , Government Printing Office . Nelson , I ( 2004 ) The emergence of autobiographical memory A social cultural developmental theory . Psychological Review , 111 ( Nelson , I ( Ross , 1980 ) The and specifics of memory in infants and young 494 I Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

children . In ( Ed . Children memory New directions in child development ( Vol . 10 , San Francisco . Company . 2009 ) Television audience . Retrieved from ( 2009 071 2008 Novella , 2008 ) The increase in autism diagnoses Two hypotheses Web log post . Retrieved from , 1997 ) Sexual experiences in early childhood longitudinal data from UCLA Family Lifestyles Project . Journal of Sex Research , 34 ( 2018 ) Early findings from the Project Gender development in transgender children . Child Development Perspectives , 12 ( 1932 ) Social participation among preschool children . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 27 , 1994 ) Theory of mind is contagious You catch from your . Child Development , 65 , Pike , Dunn , 2005 ) Sibling relationships in childhood Links with individual adjustment . Journal of Family Psychology , 19 ( Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 495

Place , 2016 ) Effects and of input in bilingual environments on dual language skills in . Bilingualism Language and Cognition , 19 , Shore , 2004 ) A developmental change in selective attention and global form perception . International Journal of Behavioral Development , 28 ( Posner , 2007 ) Research on attention networks as a model for the integration of psychological science . Annual Review in Psychology , 58 , Gordon , Ramirez , 1969 ) Skill and conservation A study of pottery making children . Developmental Psychology , 769 . Ram , Ross , 2008 ) We got to figure it out and siblings negotiations of conflicts of interest . Social Development , 17 , Rice , 1997 ) Human development approach . Upper Saddle River , Prentice Hall . Hamel ( 2006 ) The media family Electronic media in the lives of infants , toddlers , preschoolers and their parents . Retrieved from Robinson , Wilde , 2001 ) Effects of reducing children television and video game use on aggressive behavior A randomized 496 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

controlled trial . Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine , 155 , 2005 ) The development of effortful control . In , Developing individuality in the human brain A honoring Michael Posner ( Washington , American Psychological Association Ruble , 1980 ) Developmental analysis of the role of social comparison in . Developmental Psychology , 16 , Ruble , Martin , 2006 ) Gender development . In Damon ( Series . Vol . Ed . Handbook of child psychology Vol . Social , emotional , and personality development ( New York , NY Wiley . Russo , 2016 ) Debate growing about how to meet the urgent needs of transgender kids . Scientific American Mind , 27 ( 35 . Ryan , 2013 ) Language use in the United States 2011 . Retrieved from ( 2013 . Save the Children . 2019 ) Child protection . from ( Schmidt , 2008 ) The effects of background television on the Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 497

my play behavior of very young children . Child Development , 79 , Schneider , 2009 ) The development of young children memory strategies Evidence from the longitudinal memory study . European Journal of Developmental Psychology , Schwartz , 1999 ) Sexual activity prior to coitus initiation A comparison between males and females . Archives of Sexual Behavior , 28 ( Peterson , Slaughter , Wellman , 2011 ) Culture and the sequence of steps in theory of mind development . Developmental Psychology , 47 ( Singer , Singer , 1990 ) The house of believe . Cambridge , MA Harvard University Press . Smith , 2012 ) The case against spanking . Monitor on Psychology , 43 ( 60 . Society for Research in Child Development . 2018 ) The Science is clear Separating families has damaging psychological and health Retrieved from Spears Brown , A . 2018 ) Gender . Retrieved from gender Steele , 1986 ) Notes on the lasting effects of consequences for children , families , and communities . 498 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

early child abuse throughout the life cycle . Child Abuse Neglect 10 ( 2019 ) is associated with inattention problems in preschoolers Results from the CHILD birth cohort study . ONE , 14 ( Retrieved from article ?

Thomas , 1979 ) Comparing theories of child development . Santa Barbara , CA . 2015 ) Improving executive function in childhood Evaluation of a training intervention for children . Frontiers in Psychology , United Nations . 2014 ) Committee on the rights of the child . Retrieved from ( Treaties Shared VAT VAT CO 16302 United States Department of Health and Human Services . 2019 ) Child Maltreatment 2017 . Retrieved from resource United States Department of Health and Human Services . 2015 ) Head Start program facts fiscal year 2013 . Retrieved from ( data docs Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 499

, 2005 ) Sexual abuse of boys . Journal , 1962 ) Thought and language . Cambridge . Press , Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Wellman , Cross , Watson , 2001 ) analysis of theory of mind development The truth about false belief . Child Development , 72 ( Wellman , Fang , Liu , Zhu , Liu , 2006 ) Scaling theory of mind understandings in Chinese children . Psychological Science , 17 , White House Press Secretary . 2014 ) Fact Sheet Invest in US The White House Summit on Early Childhood Education . Retrieved from of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing , 18 , 2014 12 10 Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children understanding of deception . Cognition , 13 , Wing , Gould , 2011 ) Autism spectrum disorders in the Better or worse than the IV ?

Research in Developmental Disabilities , 32 , Wu , Tao , Chen , Huang , Tao , 2017 ) The relationship between screen time , nighttime sleep duration , and behavioral problems in , 1983 ) Beliefs about beliefs 500 Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood

preschool children in China . European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 26 , 548 . Yoo , 2012 ) Phonological memory in and . Memory Cognition , 40 , 1330 . A . 2013 ) Types of Preschool Programs . Retrieved from starting preschool re ro ams Attribution Adapted from Chapter from Lifespan Development A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne under the Creative Commons Alike license . Chapter 13 Physical Development in Early Childhood 501