Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part VI Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood

Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy Compare the concepts of schema , assimilation , and accommodation List and describe the six of sensorimotor intelligence Describe the characteristics of infant memory Describe components and developmental progression of language Identify and compare the theories of language and the Sensorimotor Stage Schema , Assimilation , and Accommodation believed that we are continuously trying to maintain Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 387

cognitive equilibrium , or a balance , in what we see and what we know ( 1954 ) Children have much more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations , new words , new objects , etc . All this new information needs to be organized , and a framework for organizing information is referred to as a schema . Children develop schemata through the processes of assimilation and accommodation . Figure Figure Assimilation ud Accommodation When faced with something new , a child may demonstrate assimilation , which is fitting the new information into an existing schema , such as calling all animals with four legs doggies because he or she knows the word doggie . Instead of assimilating the 388 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

information , the child may demonstrate accommodation , which is expanding the framework of knowledge to accommodate the new situation and thus learning a new word to more accurately name the animal . For example , recognizing that a horse is different from a zebra means the child has accommodated , and now the child has both a zebra schema and a horse schema . Even as adults we continue to try and make sense of new situations by determining whether they fit into our old way of thinking ( assimilation ) or whether we need to modify our thoughts ( accommodation ) According to the perspective , infants learn about the world primarily through their senses and motor abilities ( Harris , 2005 ) These basic motor and sensory abilities provide the foundation for the cognitive skills that will emerge during the subsequent stages of cognitive development . The first stage of cognitive development is referred to as the sensorimotor stage and it occurs through six . Table identifies the ages typically associated with each substage . Table III Again too nut in of the Sun Sunny I Rams subdue month ) Chub ) I ( of ( Irwin ( I Italian ( Subaru Thought II 24 . am . Substage Reflexes . Newborns learn about their world through the use of their reflexes , such as when sucking , reaching , and grasping . Eventually the use of these becomes more deliberate and purposeful . Substage Primary Circular Reactions . During these next months , the infant begins to actively involve his or her own body in some form of repeated activity . An infant may accidentally engage in Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 389

a behavior and find it interesting such as making a vocalization . This interest motivates trying to do it again and helps the infant learn a new behavior that originally occurred by chance . The behavior is identified as circular because of the repetition , and as primary because it centers on the infant own body . Substage Secondary Circular Reactions . The infant begins to interact with objects in the environment . At first the infant interacts with objects ( a crib mobile ) accidentally , but then these contacts with the objects are deliberate and become a repeated activity . The infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the outside world and takes delight in being able to make things happen . Repeated motion brings particular interest as , for example , the infant is able to bang two lids together from the cupboard when seated on the kitchen floor . Substage Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions . The infant combines these basic and simple behaviors and uses 390 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

planning and coordination to achieve a specific goal . Now the infant can engage in behaviors that others perform and anticipate upcoming events . Perhaps because of continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex , the infant becomes capable of having a thought and carrying out a planned , activity . For example , an infant sees a toy car under the kitchen table and then crawls , reaches , and grabs the toy . The infant is coordinating both internal and external activities to achieve a planned goal . Substage Tertiary Circular Reactions . The toddler is considered a little scientist and begins exploring the world in a error manner , using both motor skills and planning abilities . For example , the child might throw her ball down the stairs to see what happens . The toddler active engagement in experimentation helps them learn about their world . Substage Beginning of Representational Thought . The sensorimotor period ends with the appearance of symbolic or representational thought . The toddler now has a basic understanding that objects can be used as symbols . Additionally , the child is able to solve problems using mental strategies , to remember something heard days before and repeat it , and to engage in pretend play . This initial movement from a approach to knowing about the world to the more mental world of substage six marks the transition to thought . Figure Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 391

Development of Object Permanence A critical milestone during the sensorimotor period is the development of object permanence . Object permanence is the understanding that even if something is out of sight , it still exists ( Schilling , 2000 ) According to , young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight . studied infants reactions when a toy was first shown to them and then hidden under a blanket . Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy , indicating that they knew it still existed , whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused . emphasizes this construct because it was an objective way for children to demonstrate that they can mentally represent their world . Children have typically acquired this milestone by months . Once toddlers have mastered object permanence , they enjoy games like hide and seek , and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back . Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look at inappropriate places when you ask them to find objects . In view , around the same time children develop object permanence , they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety , which is a fear of unfamiliar people ( Crain , 2005 ) Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger , by clinging to a caregiver , or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces , such as parents . Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema therefore , she can not predict what her experience with that stranger will be like , which results in a fear response . Critique of thought that children ability to understand objects , such as 392 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken , was a cognitive skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment . Today , developmental psychologists think was incorrect . Researchers have found that even very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with those objects ( 1987 , Li , Wu , 2011 ) For example , believed that infants did not fully master object permanence until substage of the sensorimotor period ( Thomas , 1979 ) However , infants seem to be able to recognize that objects have permanence at much younger ages . Diamond ( 1985 ) found that infants show earlier knowledge if the waiting period is shorter . At age months , they retrieved the hidden object if their wait for retrieving the object is no longer than seconds , and at months if the wait is no longer than seconds . Others have found that children as young as months old have demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with . In one study , infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen . The box , which appeared solid but was actually hollow , was placed next to the track . The truck rolled past the box as would be expected . Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the truck . When the truck was rolled down the track this time , it continued unimpeded . The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event ( Figure ) 1987 ) concluded that they knew solid objects can not pass through each other . findings suggest that very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work , which ( 1954 ) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world . Figure Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 393

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a . ur A , mi . Infant Memory Memory requires a certain degree of brain maturation , so it should not be surprising that infant memory is rather fleeting and fragile . As a result , older children and adults experience infantile amnesia , the inability to recall memories from the first few years of life . Several hypotheses have been proposed for this amnesia . From the biological perspective , it has been suggested that infantile amnesia is due to the immaturity of the infant brain , especially those areas that are crucial to the formation of autobiographical memory , such as the hippocampus . From the cognitive perspective , it has been suggested that the lack of linguistic skills of babies and toddlers limit their ability to mentally represent events thereby , reducing their ability to encode memory . Moreover , even if infants do form such early memories , older children and adults may not be able to access them because they may be employing very different , more linguistically based , retrieval cues than infants used when forming the memory . Finally , social theorists argue that episodic memories of personal experiences may hinge on an understanding of self , something that is clearly lacking in infants and young toddlers . However , in a series of clever studies Carolyn and her colleagues have demonstrated that infants can remember events from their life , even if these memories are . infants were taught that they could make a mobile hung 394 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

over their crib shake by kicking their legs . The infants were placed in their crib , on their backs . A ribbon was tied to one foot and the other end to a mobile . At first infants made random movements , but then came to realize that by kicking they could make the mobile shake . After two sessions with the mobile , the mobile was removed . One week later the mobile was reintroduced to one group of infants and most of the babies immediately started kicking their legs , indicating that they remembered their prior experience with the mobile . The second group of infants was shown on the mobile two weeks later , and the babies made only random movements . The memory had faded ( 1987 Giles , 2011 ) and ( 1987 ) found that could remember the mobile after two weeks if they were shown the mobile and watched it move , even though they were not tied to it . This reminder helped most infants to remember the connection between their kicking and the movement of the mobile . Like many researchers of infant memory , 1990 ) found infant memory to be very . In other words , the sessions with the mobile and the later retrieval sessions had to be conducted under very similar circumstances or else the babies would not remember their prior experiences with the mobile . For instance , if the first mobile had had yellow blocks with blue letters , but at the later retrieval session the blocks were blue with yellow letters , the babies would not kick . Infants older than months of age can retain information for longer periods of time they also need less reminding to retrieve information in memory . Infants older than months of age can retain information for longer periods of time they also need less reminding to retrieve information in memory . Studies of deferred imitation , that is , the imitation of actions after a time delay , can occur as early as six months of age ( 2005 ) but only if infants are allowed to practice the behavior they were shown . By 12 months of age , infants no longer need to practice the behavior in order to retain memory for four weeks ( Klein , 1999 ) Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 395

Language Our vast intelligence also allows us to have language , a system of communication that uses symbols in a regular way to create meaning . Language gives us the ability to communicate our intelligence to others by talking , reading , and writing . Although other species have at least some ability to communicate , none of them have language . There are many components of language that will now be reviewed . Components of Language Phoneme A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a language . The word bit has three . In spoken languages , are produced by the positions and movements of the vocal tract , including our lips , teeth , tongue , vocal cords , and throat , whereas in sign language are defined by the shapes and movement of the hands . 396 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

There are hundreds of unique that can be made by human speakers , but most languages only use a small subset of the possibilities English contains about 45 , whereas other languages have as few as 15 and others more than 60 . The Hawaiian language contains fewer as it includes only vowels ( a , i , and ) and consonants ( in , and ) Infants are born able to detect all , but they lose their ability to do so as they get older by 10 months of age , a childs ability to recognize becomes very similar to that of the adult speakers of the native language . that were initially differentiated come to be treated as equivalent ( 81 Tees , 2002 ) Morpheme Whereas are the smallest units of sound in language , a morpheme is a string of one or more that makes up the smallest units of meaning in a language . Some are and used to modify other words . For example , the syllable as in rewrite or repay means to Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 397

do again , and the suffix as in happiest or coolest means to the Semantics Semantics refers to the set of rules we use to obtain meaning from . For example , adding ed to the end of a verb makes it past tense . Syntax Syntax is the set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences . Each language has a different syntax . The syntax of the English language requires that each sentence has a noun and a verb , each of which may be modified by adjectives and adverbs . Some make use of the order in which words appear . For example , in English , the meaning of the sentence The man bites the dog is different from The dog bites the Pragmatics The social side of language is expressed through pragmatics , or how we communicate effectively and appropriately with others . Examples of pragmatics include turn taking , staying on topic , volume and tone of voice , and appropriate eye contact . Lastly , words do not possess fixed meanings but change their interpretation as a function of the context in which they are spoken . We use contextual information , the information surrounding language , to help us interpret it . Examples of contextual information include our knowledge and nonverbal expressions , such as facial expressions , postures , and gestures . Misunderstandings can easily arise if people are not attentive to contextual information or if some of it is missing , such as it may be in newspaper headlines or in text messages . Language Developmental Progression An important aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition . The order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures ( Hatch , 1983 ) Starting before birth , babies begin to develop language and communication skills . At birth , babies recognize their mother voice and can 398 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

discriminate between the language ( spoken by their mothers and foreign languages , and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language ( Blossom Morgan , 2006 et , 1994 , 1981 ) Do newborns communicate ?

Of course , they do . They do not , however , communicate with the use of oral language . Instead , they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture ( being relaxed or still ) gestures , cries , and facial expressions . A person who spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger , discomfort , or frustration . Intentional In terms of producing spoken language , babies begin to coo almost immediately . Cooing is a combination of a consonant and a vowel sound ( coo or ba ) Interestingly , babies replicate sounds from their own languages . A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or . These gurgling , musical vocalizations can serve as a source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride . Cooing serves as practice for vocalization , as well as the infant hears the sound of his or her own voice and tries to repeat sounds that are entertaining . Infants also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as they alternate their vocalization with Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 399

that of someone else and then take their turn again when the other persons vocalization has stopped . At about four to six months of age , infants begin making even more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language . Guttural sounds , clicks , consonants , and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard . Eventually , these sounds will no longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed to a particular language . At about months , infants begin babbling , engaging in intentional vocalizations that lack specific meaning and comprise a vowel repeated sequence , such as , Children babble as practice in creating specific sounds , and by the time they are a , the babbling uses primarily the sounds of the language that they are learning ( de , 1984 ) These vocalizations have a conversational tone that sounds meaningful even though it is not . Babbling also helps children understand the social , communicative function of language . Children who are exposed to sign language babble in sign by making hand movements that represent real language ( 1991 ) Gesturing Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak , and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development ( 2005 ) Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants , reactions , and feelings . Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for some toddlers , sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one ability to communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing . The rhythm and pattern of language are used when deaf babies sign , just as it is when hearing babies babble . Understanding At around ten months of age , the infant can 400 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

understand more than he or she can say , which is referred to as receptive language . You may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to learn a second language . You may have been able to follow a conversation more easily than contribute to it . One of the first words that children understand is their own name , usually by about months , followed by commonly used words like bottle , mama , and doggie by 10 to 12 months ( 1995 ) Infants shake their head no around months , and they respond to verbal requests to do things like wave or blow a kiss around months . Children also use contextual information , particularly the cues that parents provide , to help them learn the language . Children learn that people are usually referring to things that they are looking at when they are speaking ( Baldwin , 1993 ) and that that the speakers emotional expressions are related to the content of their speech . Holophrastic Speech Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages . These expressions are referred to as speech . For example , the child may say ju for the word juice and use this sound when referring to a bottle . The listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase , and when this is someone who has spent time with the child , interpretation is not too difficult . But , someone who has not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant . Imagine the parent who to a friend exclaims , Ezra talking all the time now ! The friend hears only ju da ga to which the parent explains means , I want some milk when I go with Language Errors The early utterances of children contain many errors , for instance , confusing and , or and . The words children create are often simplified , in part because they are not yet able to make the more complex sounds of the real language ( 1992 ) Children may say Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 401

for kitty , nana for banana , and for spaghetti because it is easier . Often these early words are accompanied by gestures that may also be easier to produce than the words themselves . Children become increasingly accurate between and years , but some problems may persist until school age . A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can be used for only that particular object , which is referred to as . Only the family Irish Setter is a doggie , for example . More often , however , a child may think that a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object , which is called overextension . For example , all animals become doggies . The first error is often the result of children learning the meaning of a word in a specific context , while the second language error is a function of the child smaller vocabulary . First words and cultural influences If the child is using English , first words tend to be nouns . The child labels objects such as a cup , ball , or other items that they regularly interact with . In a friendly language such as Chinese , however , children may learn more verbs . This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects based on culture . Chinese children may be taught to notice action and relationships between objects , while children from the United States may be taught to name an object and its qualities ( color , texture , size , etc ) These differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students from China and the United States ( et , 2008 ) sentences and telegraphic ( text message ) speech By the time they become toddlers , children have a vocabulary of about words and begin putting those words together in telegraphic speech , such as baby or doggie pretty . Words needed to convey messages are used , but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not yet used . These expressions sound like a telegraph , or perhaps a better analogy today would be that they read like a text message . 402 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

Telegraphic message speech occurs when unnecessary words are not used . Give baby ball is used rather than Give the baby the ball . Speech Why is a horse a horsie ?

Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use baby talk or that type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children ?

This represents a universal tendency and is known as speech . It involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds , using a voice , and delivering the phrase with great facial expression ( Clark , 2009 ) Why is this done ?

Infants are frequently more attuned to the tone of voice of the person speaking than to the content of the words themselves and are aware of the target of speech . and ( 1994 ) found that infants listened longer to a woman who was speaking to a baby than to a woman who was speaking to another adult . Adults may use this form of speech in order to clearly articulate the sounds of a word so that the child can hear the sounds involved . It may also be because when this type of speech is used , the infant pays more attention to the speaker and this sets up a pattern of interaction in which the speaker and listener are in tune with one another . Theories of Language Development Psychological theories of language learning differ in terms of the importance they place on nature and nurture . Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture . Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment ( Newport , 1995 Stork , 1974 ) First to be discussed are the biological theories , including nativist , brain areas , and critical periods . Next , learning theory and social pragmatics will be presented . Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 403

Nativism The linguist is a believer in the natural approach to language , arguing that human brains contain a language acquisition device ( LAD ) that includes a universal grammar that underlies all human language ( 1965 , 1972 ) According to this approach , each of the many languages spoken around the world ( there are between and ) is an individual example of the same underlying set of procedures that are hardwired into human brains . account proposes that children are born with a knowledge of general rules of syntax that determine how sentences are constructed . Language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it . No teaching , training , or reinforcement is required for language to develop as proposed by Skinner . differentiates between the deep structure of an idea that is , how the idea is represented in the fundamental universal grammar that is common to all languages , and the surface structure of the idea or how it is expressed in any one language . Once we hear or express a thought in surface structure , we generally forget exactly how it happened . At the end of a lecture , you will remember a lot of the deep structure ( ie , the ideas expressed by the instructor ) but you can not reproduce the surface structure ( the exact words that the instructor used to communicate the ideas ) Although there is general agreement among psychologists that babies are genetically programmed to learn language , there is still debate about idea that there is a universal grammar that can account for all language learning . Evans and ( 2009 ) surveyed the world languages and found that none of the presumed underlying features of the language acquisition device were entirely universal . In their search , they found languages that did not have noun or verb phrases , that did not have tenses ( past , present , future ) and even some that did not have nouns or verbs at all , even though a basic assumption of a universal grammar is that all languages should share these features . Brain Areas for Language For the 90 of people who are 404 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

handed , language is stored and controlled by the left cerebral cortex , although for some this pattern is reversed . These differences can easily be seen in the results of studies that show that listening to and producing language creates greater activity in the left hemisphere than in the right . area , an area in front of the left hemisphere near the motor cortex , is responsible for language production ( Figure ) Figure Drawing of Brain Showing and Area Figure Drawing of Brain Showing and Area No . A uni For most the hemisphere is specialized for language . amt . near the motor cortex . is involved in language production . uh mu area . the auditory cortex . is specialized for language comprehension . This area was first localized in the by the French physician Paul , who studied patients with lesions to various parts of the brain . area , an area of the brain next to the auditory cortex , is responsible for language comprehension . Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 405

Is there a critical period for learning a language ?

Psychologists believe there is a critical period , a time in which learning can easily occur , for language . This critical period appears to be between infancy and puberty ( 1967 Roberts , 1959 ) but isolating the exact timeline has been elusive . Children who are not exposed to language early in their lives will likely never grasp the grammatical and communication nuances of language . Case studies , including Victor the Wild Child , who has abandoned as a baby in century France and not discovered until he was 12 , and Genie , a child whose parents kept her locked away from 18 months until 13 years of age , are two examples of children who were deprived of language . Both children made some progress in socialization after they were rescued , but neither of them ever developed a working understanding of language ( 1993 ) Yet , such case studies are fraught with many confounds . How much did the years of social isolation and malnutrition contribute to their problems in language development ?

Figure Victor of 406 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy A better test for the notion of critical periods for language is found in studies of children with hearing loss . Several studies show that the earlier children are diagnosed with hearing impairment and receive treatment , the better the child language development . For instance , et al . 2015 ) reported that when children hearing loss was identified during newborn screening , and subsequently addressed , the majority showed normal language development when later tested at months . Crawford , Ni , and ( 2011 ) reported that early language intervention in children who were moderately to severely hard of hearing , demonstrated normal outcomes in language proficiency by to years of age . et al . 2015 ) reported that children who were fit with hearing aids by months of age showed good levels of language development by age . Those whose hearing was not corrected until after 18 months showed lower language performance , even in the early preschool years . However , this study did reveal that those whose hearing was corrected by had greatly improved language skills by age . The research with hearing impaired children reveals that this critical period for language development is not exclusive to infancy , and that the brain is still receptive to language development in early childhood . Fortunately , it is has become routine to screen hearing in newborns , because when hearing loss is not treated early , it can delay spoken language , literacy , and impact children social skills ( 2015 ) Learning Theory Perhaps the most straightforward explanation of language development is that it occurs through the principles of learning , including association and reinforcement ( Skinner , 1953 ) Additionally , 1977 ) described the importance of observation and imitation of others in learning language . There must be at least some truth to the idea that language is learned through environmental interactions or nurture . Children learn the language that they hear spoken around them rather than some other language . Also supporting this idea is the gradual Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 407

improvement of language skills with time . It seems that children modify their language through imitation and reinforcement , such as parental praise and being understood . For example , when a child asks for juice , he might say , me juice , to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice . Figure Three Theorists who provide explanations for language development Tint Cu lounge . IL . Ann . OI . us . However , language can not be entirely learned . For one , children learn words too fast for them to be learned through reinforcement . Between the ages of 18 months and years , children learn up to 10 new words every day ( 1993 ) More importantly , language is more generative than it is imitative . Language is not a set of ideas and sentences that we choose when we need them , but rather a system of rules and procedures that allows us to create an infinite number of statements , thoughts , and ideas , including those that have never previously occurred . When a child says that she in the pool , for instance , she is showing . No adult speaker of English would ever say , yet it is easily generated from the normal system of producing language . Other evidence that refutes the idea that all language is learned through experience comes from the observation that children may 408 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy

learn languages better than they ever hear them . Deaf children whose parents do not communicate using very well nevertheless are able to learn it perfectly on their own and may even make up their own language if they need to ( 1998 ) A group of deaf children in a school in , whose teachers could not sign , invented a way to communicate through signs ( 2005 ) The development of this new Nicaraguan Sign Language has continued and changed as new generations of students have come to the school and started using the language . Although the original system was not a real language , it is becoming closer and closer every year , showing the development of a new language in modern times . Social pragmatics Another view emphasizes the very social nature of human language . Language from this view is not only a cognitive skill but also a social one . A language is a tool humans use to communicate , connect to , influence and inform others . Most of all , language comes out of a need to cooperate . The social nature of language has been demonstrated by a number of studies that have shown that children use several skills ( such as pointing and other gestures ) to communicate not only their own needs but what others may need . So , a child watching her mother search for an object may point to the object to help her mother find it . to have been shown to make linguistic repairs when it is clear that another person does not understand them ( Grosse , Carpenter , 2010 ) Grosse et al . 2010 ) found that even when the child was given the desired object if there had been any misunderstanding along the way ( such as a delay in being handed the object , or the experimenter calling the object by the wrong name ) children would make linguistic repairs . This would suggest that children are using language not only as a means of achieving some material goal , but to make themselves understood in the mind of another person . Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy 409

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Attribution Adapted from Chapter from Lifespan Development A Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne under the Creative Commons Alike license . 424 Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Infancy