Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part III Chapter 3 Theoretical Perspectives

PART 111 THE SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSION Learning Objectives Describe Critical Practice Theory Describe Feminist Theory Describe the Sociocultural Perspective Define Cultural Concepts in Social Work The Sociocultural Dimension 99 Vignette James is a 16 Latino American whose migrated to the United States from before he was parents born . His family has always valued the traditional customs of their culture , his father being the head of the house and his mother staying home to run the household and raise the children . They have often discussed plans for an arranged marriage with a girl back in throughout his life , but he had never really given it much thought until recently when his mother mentioned they would begin plans for his Photo by Jennifer on wedding within the next year . James is struggling with the thought of an arranged marriage as he has grown up in the United States where this is not a tradition that is practiced . On top of this , his father has recently lost his job and his mother has been struggling with some health issues . His family is experiencing increased stressors as his father is struggling to find a new job and his mother is unable to healthcare until his father begins working again . He has begun to demonstrate struggles at school due to the stress and anxiety he is experiencing with plans of his arranged marriage as well as increased financial struggles his family is experiencing . He has been reported to be getting into fights with peers , talking back to teachers , and refusing to turn in his work . James has been referred to the school social worker regarding his academic problems and his parents have encouraged him to meet with the priest at their church . 100 The Sociocultural Dimension

The Sociocultural Dimension This dimension will continue introductions of theories and perspectives and exploration of how our environment teaches , influences , and changes ( or reinforces ) our behaviors and responses . Critical Practice Theory states social problems are caused by an oppressive society and maintained by dominate groups . It is similar to Conflict Theory but expands further past the focus of unequal power distribution to explore social change views within social work practice . The goal is to help clients overcome limits of existing social order through empowerment . Feminist Theory is based on the advocacy of social , economic , and political equality between both sexes and is often expanded to apply equal rights to all minority groups . James stor Within Critical Practice theory , we would examine dominant groups he is connected with and explore any oppression he or his family may be experiencing that are causing increased struggles with his fathers attempts to find a job , access to healthcare , academic supports , or basic needs . We want to explore how he is impacted by dominant groups and work to support him in connecting to his experiences , recognizing how he is being impacted , and empowering him in his work to make change at all levels ( micro , mezzo , and macro ) Feminist theory joins in with work in advocating for equality in all areas of his life . The Sociocultural Dimension 101

Sociocultural Perspective states that much of your behavior and feelings are dictated by the culture you live in . Think about how your culture greets one another can you think of a way another culture might do this differently ?

Does your culture value the individual or the group ?

When working with James it will also be important to consider the cultural aspects he is connected to and how this may be impacting his life . He reports feeling part of both and American cultures but feels some conflict as his parents stay strongly connected to their culture with minimal thoughts of incorporating American culture into their home and expectations of behaviors . What struggles might this conflict cause ?

How would having an understanding of his family culture help you in providing supports for James ?

Cultural Concepts in Social Work relativism the idea that different cultures should be treated equally and not judged against the criteria of another . how people form their sense of belonging in relation to their ancestry and cultural heritage . Ethnicity how people associate themselves with a group that has a common national or cultural tradition . Ethnocentrism belief that one ethnic group or 102 The Sociocultural Dimension

culture is superior to another and is the standard of how other cultures should be evaluated . Egos the set of beliefs , morals , ethics , and values a person or community lives by . Ideology a persons principal ideas of what is correct and the way things should be . Social class a division of a society based on social and economic status . Worldview a particular philosophy of life or conception of the world how you look at the world or your personal philosophy . Please continue to Chapter Theoretical Perspectives which wil cover Conflict Theory , Functionalism , and Symbolic Interactionist Theory ( also known as Social Constructionism Theory ) encourage you to continue thinking about how each of these theories connects to James story . And Chapter The Elements Culture for further exploration of cultural competence . Key Takeaways Conflict Theory attempts to understand behaviors through exploration of tensions . The Sociocultural Dimension 103

Critical Practice Theory states social problems are caused by an oppressive society and maintained by dominate groups . I Functionalist Theory sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability . I Social Constructionism or Symbolic Interaction Theory states people attach meaning to communications and interactions they have with their environments . This is experienced differently for each individual and they create their reality based on their experiences . I Feminist Theory is based on the advocacy of social , economic , and political equality between both sexes and is often expanded to apply equal rights to all minority groups . I Culture can be defined as the customs , arts , social institutions , and achievements of a particular nation , people , or other social group . I We also explored cultural concepts in Social Work . References Rogers , A . 2013 ) Human behavior in the social environment ( Fourth Edition . New York . 104 The Sociocultural Dimension

Chapter Theoretical Perspectives Explain what sociological theories are and how they are used . Understand the similarities and differences between structural functionalism , theory , and symbolic . Chapter Theoretical Perspectives 105 Sociologists develop theories to explain social occurrences such as protest rallies . Photo of Commons ) Sociologists study social events , interactions , and patterns , and they develop a theory in an attempt to explain why things work as they do . In sociology , a theory is a way to explain different aspects of social interactions and to create a testable proposition , called a hypothesis , about society ( Allan 2006 ) For example , although suicide is generally considered an individual phenomenon , Emile was interested in studying the social factors that affect it . He studied social ties within a group , or social solidarity , and hypothesized that differences in suicide rates might be explained by differences . gathered a large amount of data about Europeans who had ended their lives , and he did indeed find differences based on religion . Protestants were more likely to commit suicide than Catholics in society , and his work supports the utility of theory in sociological research . 106 Chapter Theoretical Perspectives

Theories vary in scope depending on the scale of the issues that they are meant to explain . theories relate to issues and large groups of people , while theories look at very specific relationships between individuals or small groups . Grand theories attempt to explain relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change . Sociological theory is constantly evolving and should never be considered complete . Classic sociological theories are still considered important and current , but new sociological theories build upon the work of their predecessors and add to them ( 2002 ) In sociology , a few theories provide broad perspectives that help explain many different aspects of social life , and these are called paradigms . Paradigms are philosophical and theoretical used within a discipline to formulate theories , generalizations , and the experiments performed in support of them . Three paradigms have come to dominate sociological thinking because they provide useful explanations structural functionalism , conflict theory , and symbolic interactionism . Sociological Theories or Perspectives Different sociological perspectives enable sociologists to view social issues through a variety of useful lenses . Sociological Level of Paradigm Analysis Focus Structural Macro The way each part of society functions Functionalism or mid together to contribute to the whole The way inequalities contribute to social Macro differences and perpetuate differences in power Symbolic Micro interactions and Interactionism communications Chapter Theoretical Perspectives 107

Functionalism Functionalism also called theory , sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society . Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist , Spencer ( who saw similarities between society and the human body he argued that just as the various organs of the bodywork together to keep the body functioning , the various parts of society work together to keep society functioning ( Spencer 1898 ) The parts of society that Spencer referred to were the social institutions , or patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs , such as government , education , family , healthcare , religion , and the economy . Emile , another early sociologist , applied theory to explain how societies change and survive over time . believed that society is a complex system of interrelated and interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability ( 1893 ) and that society is held together by shared values , languages , and symbols . He believed that to study society , a sociologist must look beyond individuals to social facts such as laws , morals , values , religious beliefs , customs , fashion , and rituals , which all serve to govern social life . Alfred ( defined the function of any recurrent activity as the part it played in social life as a whole , and therefore the contribution it makes to social stability and continuity ( 1952 ) In a healthy society , all parts work together to maintain stability , a state called dynamic equilibrium by later sociologists such as Parsons ( 1961 ) believed that individuals may make up society , but in order to study society , sociologists have to look beyond individuals to social facts . Social facts are the laws , morals , values , religious beliefs , customs , fashions , rituals , and all of the cultural rules that govern social life ( 1895 ) Each of these social facts serves one or more functions within a society . For example , one function 108 Chapter Theoretical Perspectives

of a society laws may be to protect society from violence , while another is to punish criminal behavior , while another is to preserve public health . Another noted , Robert ( pointed out that social processes often have many functions . Manifest functions are the consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated , while latent functions are the unsought consequences of a social process . A manifest function of college education , for example , includes gaining knowledge , preparing for a career , and finding a good job that utilizes that education . The latent functions of your college years include meeting new people , participating in extracurricular activities , or even finding a spouse or partner . Another latent function of education is creating a hierarchy of employment based on the level of education attained . Latent functions can be beneficial , neutral , or harmful . Social processes that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society are called . education , examples of dysfunction include getting bad grades , truancy , dropping out , not graduating , and not finding suitable employment . Criticism One criticism of the theory is that it adequately explain social change . Also problematic is the somewhat circular nature of this theory repetitive behavior patterns are assumed to have a function , yet we profess to know that they have a function only because they are repeated . Furthermore , may continue , even though they dont serve a function , which seemingly contradicts the basic premise of the theory . Many sociologists now believe that functionalism is no longer useful as a theory , but that it does serve a useful purpose in some analyses . Chapter Theoretical Perspectives 109

Global Culture ?

Some sociologists see the world to the creation of an emerging global culture . Are you a part of any global communities ?

Photo courtesy of ) 110 Chapter Theoretical Perspectives Sociologists around the world look closely for signs of what would be an unprecedented event the emergence of a global culture . In the past , empires such as those that existed in China , Europe , Africa , and Central and South America linked people from many different countries , but those people rarely became part of a common culture . They lived too far from each other , spoke different languages , practiced different religions , and traded few goods . Today , increases in communication , travel , and trade have made the world a much smaller place . More and more people are able to communicate with each other they are telephone , video , and text . They share movies , television shows , music , games , and information over the Internet . Students can study with teachers and pupils from the other side of the globe . Governments find it harder to hide conditions inside their countries from the rest of the world . Sociologists research many different aspects of this potential global culture . Some explore the dynamics involved in the social interactions of global online communities , such as when members feel a closer kinship to other group members than to people residing in their own countries . Other sociologists study the impact this growing international culture has on smaller , local cultures . Yet other researchers explore how international markets and the outsourcing of labor impact social inequalities . Sociology can play a key role in people abilities to understand the nature of this emerging global culture and how to respond to it . Conflict Theory Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources . This perspective is a approach most identified with the writings of German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx ( who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social classes who must compete for social , Chapter Theoretical Perspectives 111

material , and political resources such as food and housing , employment , education , and leisure time . Social institutions like government , education , and religion reflect this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal social structure . Some individuals and organizations are able to obtain and keep more resources than others , and these winners use their power and influence to maintain social institutions . Several theorist suggested variations on this basic theme . sociologist Ludwig ( expanded on Marx ideas by arguing that war and conquest are the basis of civilizations . He believed that cultural and ethnic conflicts led to states being identified and defined by a dominant group that had power over other groups ( Irving 2007 ) German sociologist Max Weber agreed with Marx but also believed that , in addition to economic inequalities , inequalities of political power and social structure cause conflict . Weber noted that different groups were affected differently based on education , race , and gender , and that people reactions to inequality were moderated by class differences and rates of social mobility , as well as by perceptions about the legitimacy of those in power . German sociologist Georg ( believed that conflict can help integrate and stabilize a society . He said that the intensity of the conflict varies depending on the emotional involvement of the parties , the degree of solidarity within the opposing groups , and the clarity and limited nature of the goals . also showed that groups work to create internal solidarity , centralize power , and reduce dissent . Resolving conflicts can reduce tension and hostility and can pave the way for future agreements . In the and , German philosophers , known as the Frankfurt School , developed critical theory as an elaboration on Marxist principles . Critical theory is an expansion of conflict theory and is broader than just sociology , including other social sciences and philosophy . A critical theory attempts to address structural issues causing inequality it must explain whats wrong in current 112 Chapter Theoretical Perspectives

social reality , identify the people who can make changes , and provide practical goals for social transformation ( More recently , inequality based on gender or race has been explained in a similar manner and has identified institutionalized power structures that help to maintain inequality between groups . Janet ( presented a model of feminist theory that attempts to explain the forces that maintain gender inequality as well as a theory of how such a system can be changed ( Turner 2003 ) Similarly , critical race theory grew out of a critical analysis of race and racism from a legal point of view . Critical race theory looks at structural inequality based on white privilege and associated wealth , power , and prestige . Criticism Farming and How Sociological Perspectives Might View Food Consumption The consumption of food is a commonplace , daily occurrence , yet it can also be associated with important moments in our lives . Eating can be an individual or a group action , and eating habits and customs are influenced by our cultures . In the context of society , our nations food system is at the core of numerous social movements , political issues , and economic debates . Any of these factors might become a topic of sociological study . A approach to the topic of food consumption might be interested in the role of the agriculture industry within the nation economy and how this has changed from the early days of farming to modern mechanized production . Another examination might study the different functions that occur in food production from farming and harvesting to flashy packaging and mass consumerism . Chapter Theoretical Perspectives 113

A conflict theorist might be interested in the power differentials present in the regulation of food , by exploring where people right to information intersects with corporations drive for profit and how the government those interests . Or a conflict theorist might be interested in the power and powerlessness experienced by local farmers versus large farming conglomerates , such as the documentary Food depicts as resulting from patenting of seed technology . Another topic of study might be how nutrition varies between different social classes . A sociologist viewing food consumption through a symbolic interactionist lens would be more interested in topics , such as the symbolic use of food in religious rituals , or the role it plays in the social interaction of a family dinner . This perspective might also study the interactions among group members who identify themselves based on their sharing a particular diet , such as vegetarians ( people who do eat meat ) or ( people who strive to eat locally produced food ) Just as structural functionalism was criticized for focusing too much on the stability of societies , conflict theory has been criticized because it tends to focus on conflict to the exclusion of recognizing stability . Many social structures are extremely stable or have gradually progressed over time rather than changing abruptly as conflict theory would suggest . Symbolic Interactionist Symbolic interactionism is a theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society . exchange of meaning through language and believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds . Theorists and Reynolds ( 1994 ) note that this perspective sees people as being active in shaping the social world rather than simply being acted upon . 114 Chapter Theoretical Perspectives

George Herbert Mead ( is considered a founder of symbolic interactionism though he never published his work on it ( and 1993 ) Mead student , Herbert , coined the term symbolic interactionism and outlined these basic premises humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those things the ascribed meaning of things comes from our interactions with others and society the meanings of things are interpreted by a person when dealing with things in specific circumstances ( 1969 ) If you love books , for example , a symbolic interactionist might propose that you learned that books are good or important in the interactions you had with family , friends , school , or church maybe your family had a special reading time each week , getting your library card was treated as a special event , or bedtime stories were associated with warmth and comfort . Social scientists who apply thinking look for patterns of interaction between individuals . Their studies often involve observation of interactions . For example , while a conflict theorist studying a political protest might focus on class difference , a symbolic interactionist would be more interested in how individuals in the protesting group interact , as well as the signs and symbols protesters use to communicate their message . The focus on the importance of symbols in building a society led sociologists like ( to develop a technique called dramaturgical analysis . used theater as an analogy for social interaction and recognized that people interactions showed patterns of cultural Because it can be unclear what part a person may play in a given situation , he or she has to improvise his or her role as the situation unfolds ( Studies that use the symbolic interactionist perspective are more likely to use qualitative research methods , such as interviews or participant observation , because they seek to understand the symbolic worlds in which research subjects live . Constructivism is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be . We develop social constructs based on interactions with Chapter Theoretical Perspectives 115

others , and those constructs that last over time are those that have meanings which are widely or generally accepted by most within the society . This approach is often used to understand what defined as deviant within a society . There is no absolute definition of deviance , and different societies have constructed different meanings for deviance , as well as associating different behaviors with deviance . One situation that illustrates this is what you believe you re to do if you find a wallet in the street . In the United States , turning the wallet in to local authorities would be considered the appropriate action , and to keep the wallet would be seen as deviant . In contrast , many Eastern societies would consider it much more appropriate to keep the wallet and search for the owner yourself turning it over to someone else , even the authorities , would be considered deviant behavior . Criticism Research done from this perspective is often scrutinized because of the difficulty of remaining objective . Others criticize the extremely narrow focus on symbolic interaction . Proponents , of course , consider this one of its greatest strengths . Sociological Theory Today These three approaches are still the main foundation of modern sociological theory , but some evolution has been seen . functionalism was a dominant force after World War II and until the and . At that time , sociologists began to feel that did not sufficiently explain the rapid social changes happening in the United States at that time . Conflict theory then gained prominence , as there was a renewed 116 Chapter Theoretical Perspectives

emphasis on institutionalized social inequality . Critical theory , and the particular aspects of feminist theory and critical race theory , focused on creating social change through the application of sociological principles , and the field saw a renewed emphasis on helping ordinary people understand sociology principles , in the form of public sociology . The postmodern social theory attempts to look at society through an entirely new lens by rejecting previous attempts to explain social phenomena . Generally considered as gaining acceptance in the late and early , postmodern social theory is a approach that looks at small , local groups and individual reality . Its growth in popularity coincides with the constructivist aspects of symbolic interactionism . Summary Sociologists develop theories to explain social events , interactions , and patterns . A theory is a proposed explanation of those social interactions . Theories have different scales . theories , such as structural functionalism and conflict theory , attempt to explain how societies operate as a whole . theories , such as symbolic interactionism , focus on interactions between individuals . References Allan , Kenneth . 2006 . Contemporary Social and Sociological Theory Visualizing Social Worlds . Thousand Oaks , CA Pine Forge Press . 1969 . Symbolic Perspective and Method . Cliffs , Prentice Hall . Chapter Theoretical Perspectives 117

, Gerald . 1973 . History of Anthropology . Burgess Publishing Company . Craig . 2002 . Classical Sociological Theory . MA . Emile . 1984 1893 . The Division of Labor in Society . New York Free Press . Emile . 1964 1895 Rules of Sociological Method , edited by Mueller , George and Caitlin . ed . Translated by . New York Free Press . 1958 . The Presentation of in Everyday Life . Edinburgh University of Edinburgh , Social Sciences Research Centre . Walter . 1996 . Functionalism in Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology , Vol . edited by and Ember . New York Henry Holt and Company . Henry , Stuart . 2007 . Deviance , Constructionist Encyclopedia of Sociology . Retrieved October 14 , 2014 ( Herman , Nancy , and Larry Reynolds . 1994 . Symbolic Interaction An Introduction to Social Psychology . Press . 1982 . Critical Theory . New York Press . Irving , John Scott . 2007 . Fifty Key Sociologists The Formative . New York . and . 1993 . Symbolic and Family . in of Family Theories and Methods A Contextual Approach , edited by Boss , and . New York Springer . Alexandra , and Jonathan Turner . 1992 . The Social Cage Human Nature and the Evolution of Society . Stanford , CA Stanford University Press . 118 Chapter Theoretical Perspectives

Marx , Karl and Friedrich . 1998 1848 . The Communist Manifesto . New York Penguin . Parsons , 1961 . Theories of Society Foundations of Modern Sociological Theory . New York Free Press . Pew Research Center . 2012 . Mobile Technology Fact Pew Research Internet Project , April 2012 . Retrieved October 15 , 2014 ( AR . 1952 . Structure and Function in Primitive Society Essays and Addresses . London Cohen and West . Spencer , Herbert . 1898 . The Principles of Biology . New York and Company . ed . Belmont , Turner , 2003 . The Structure of Sociological Theory . CA . UCLA School of Public Affairs . What is Critical Race Theory ?

UCLA School of Public Affairs Critical Race Studies . Retrieved October 20 , 2014 ( Attribution Adapted from Theoretical Perspectives by Rice University under the Creative Commons license . Chapter Theoretical Perspectives 119