Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part II Chapter 2 Lifespan Theories

PART II THE DIMENSION Learning Objectives Describe the Disease and Medical Models Describe Social Learning Theory Explore how biological functioning impacts our overall health Vignette Jason parents have been called by the school social worker to discuss concerns related to fighting with a peer and declining grades . His parents report concerns at home with poor sibling relationships , anger issues , and a bad attitude , always talking back , never listening or doing what we ask him to do . They report a long family history of substance abuse and The Dimension 65

mental health issues ( anxiety and depression ) They report increased concerns related to this as they recently found marijuana in Jason room . Jason ( 14 ) reports My parents do know what they re talking about . My little brother and sister just get me in trouble because I dont let them touch my stuff , besides , my parents dont care , they dont listen to me , they just want me to do what they say . And I don see what the big deal is with me smoking a little weed , it helps me feel better and not be so mad all the We will continue use of this vignette for this section as well . The Dimension allows us to take a more look into theories and models as we explore client issues or concerns . The Disease Model is a approach concerned with identifying a problem or dysfunction and providing an intervention to cure the behavioral or physiological problem . Focusing on the problem first is how many people are used to working when trying to find a solution . While we work in a approach , the disease model is popular in many health care settings , and having understanding of use of this model allows for communication and collaboration with other professionals that may also be involved in the clients care . The Medical Model is a model focused on identifying a disease based on symptoms , and then curing or alleviating the problem through scientific examination and intervention . An example of this would be use of the Diagnostic and Statistical of Mental Disorders ( in clinical social work to assess symptoms reported by a client and then determine the correct diagnosis , which leads to chosen treatment . This model has been widely used in social work and other professions to help conceptualize problems and interventions . 66 The Dimension

Observational Learning Bobo ' I Khan Academy A YouTube element has been this version of the text . You can view it unline here ?

Social Learning Theory states people learn by observing others and are active in their learning . Jason star We can utilize Social Lemming Theory to explore how Jason may have learned to express his emotions ( how parents or other influential people in his life express their emotions ) use of different coping skills or trying out new behaviors ( drug use by other family members , The 67

communication style , and skills to discover and understand where behaviors were learned , how they impact , and in determining how to best provide needed supports . We will take a deeper look at some key elements of human biology in the following videos with an exploration of the brain , and genetics and their connection to wellness and how they can disease and issues related to this . The Brain The first two videos are short videos that explore the brain , different ways it may function , and how stress can impact brain functions . The second two videos are a bit longer and will explore how we perceive others and increasing our own self awareness for a healthy mind . Human Brain Major Structures and their Functions . 68 The Dimension

( att i A YouTube element has been this version of the text . You can view it unline here Qu ( The Neurobiology of Stress on Brain Function . The Dimension 69 Highest order brain systems , came our mates order an . A YouTube element has been this version of the text . You can view it unline here Qu ( What do others think of you ?

How the brain perceives other people 70 The A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here ?

What is a Healthy Mind ' The Dimension 71 A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here , Executive Function and Self Regulation skills are the processes that enable us to plan , focus attention , remember instructions , and juggle multiple tasks successfully . The brain needs this skill set to filter distractions , prioritize tasks , set and achieve goals , and control impulses . types of brain functions 72 The Dimension

. Working memory governs our ability to retain and manipulate distinct pieces of information over short periods of time . Mental helps us to sustain or shift attention in response to different demands or to apply different rules in different settings . enables us to set priorities and resists impulsive actions or responses . These functions are highly interrelated , and the application of executive function skills requires them to operate in coordination with each other . Children are not born with these are born with the potential to develop them . If children do not receive appropriate and healthy responses to their needs from their relationships with adults and the conditions in their environments , their skil development can be seriously delayed or impaired . It would be important to explore executive functioning The Dimension 73

and skills with Jason to determine if a referral to other supports such as developmental therapy ( possible cognitive delays ) or occupational therapy ( possible sensory issues ) are needed . Functions of the Nervous System of the System A YouTube element has been this version of the text . You can view it unline here ?

It is important to recognize our internal systems are and are affected by one another Ex how chronic stress can impact our physical health , emotional health , and functioning 74 The Dimension How might Jason physical and mental health be impacted by increased stress ?

Genetics A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here ?

Here we look at the exploration of genetics and environment come back to the age old question nature nurture ?

Does one have a stronger impact than the other in shaping who we are how we respond to our world ?

As in most cases , you will need to look at both and determine which may be impacting your client more . The Dimension 75 Jason may be more strongly to explore drug use and experience mental health issues due to his family genetics and history . He may also be influenced more strongly at this time due to his stage of development where peer is the driving factor in many of his choices . Please continue on to Chapter Lifespan Theories to learn more about Psychosocial development , Cognitive development , Psychosexual development , and Theory of Moral development . Key Takeaways I Social Learning Theory explores how observations of others and their responses to us shape our learning and responses to various feelings , situations , and others . I Theories of Cognitive Development states people develop cognitively from birth through teenage years in universal stages . I Theories of Psychosocial Development includes stages we engage in throughout our lifetime with the goal of learning to trust others , to be independent , to pursue goals and interests , to be productive and successful , to develop a 76 The Dimension

sense of identity , to look for closeness and intimacy in relationships , to begin investing in work , families , and communities and focus on others , and finally to reflect on lives to either develop a sense of or of despair . Freud Theory of Psychosexual Development states our moral self is shaped by society morals and values which gives us our sense of right and wrong . Anxiety or guilt is used to keep the ego and id in check . We took a deeper look at biological functioning with the brain , nervous system , and genetics and impacts they have on our overall health and functioning . References Rogers , A . 2013 ) Human behavior in the social environment ( Fourth ) New York . Video . 2014 , April 24 ) Functions of the Nervous System . Organ Systems Video file . Youtube . Standard YouTube License . watch ?

2013 , September 17 ) Observational learning Bobo doll experiment and social cognitive theory Video The Dimension 77 file . Youtube . Standard YouTube License . watch ?

Learning . 2016 , September 22 ) Human Brain Major Structures and their Functions Video file . Youtube . Standard YouTube License . watch ?

2019 , February 21 ) What is a Healthy Mind ?

Dan Video file . Youtube . Standard YouTube License . watch ?

Talks . 2017 , December ) Twins A window into human nature Video file . Youtube . Standard YouTube License . watch ?

Talks . 2015 , November 19 ) What do others think of you ?

How the brain perceives other people Video file . Youtube . Standard YouTube License . watch ?

24 Yale School of Medicine . 2019 , July 15 ) The Neurobiology of Stress on Brain Function Video file . Youtube . Standard YouTube License . watch ?

78 The Dimension Chapter Lifespan Theories Discuss Freud Theory of psychosexual development . Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according to . Discuss view of cognitive development and apply the stages to understanding childhood cognition . Describe theory of moral development . Freud Psychosexual Theory of Development Sigmund Freud ( believed that personality develops during early childhood . For Freud , childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults . Freud viewed development as discontinuous he believed that each of us must pass through a serious of stages during childhood and that if we lack proper Chapter Lifespan Theories 79

and parenting during a stage , we may become stuck , or fixated , in that stage . Freud stages are called the stages of psychosexual development . According to Freud , children seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body , called an erogenous zone , at each of the five stages of development oral , anal , phallic , latency , and genital . While most of Freud ideas have not found support in modern research , we can not discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology . Psychologists , today dispute Freud psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one personality develops , but what we can take away from theory is that personality is shaped , in some part , by experiences we have in childhood . These stages are discussed in detail in the chapter on personality . Psychosocial Theory Erik ( Figure ) another stage theorist , took Freud theory and modified it as psychosocial theory . son psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature . While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood , proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan . suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self , or what he called the ego identity . 80 Chapter Lifespan Theories

Erik proposed the psychosocial theory of development . In each stage of theory , there 15 psychosocial task that we must master in order to feel a sense of competence . Figure ) proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives . According to psychosocial theory , we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan , from infancy through late adulthood . At each stage , there is a conflict , or task , that we need to resolve . Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality . Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy . According to ( 1963 ) trust is the basis of our development during infancy ( birth to 12 months ) Therefore , the primary task of this stage is trust versus mistrust . Infants are dependent upon their caregivers , so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infants needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust their baby will see the world as a safe , predictable place . Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby needs can engender Chapter Lifespan Theories 81

feelings of anxiety , fear , and mistrust their baby may see the world as unpredictable . As toddlers ( ages years ) begin to explore their world , they learn that they can control their actions and act on the environment to get results . They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment , such as food , toys , and clothing . A toddler main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt , by working to establish independence . This is the me do it stage . For example , we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself . Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation , her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence . If denied the opportunity to act on her environment , she may begin to doubt her abilities , which could lead to low and feelings of shame . Once children reach the preschool stage ( ages years ) they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play . According to , preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt . By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others , preschool children can master this task . Those who do will develop and feel a sense of purpose . Those who are unsuccessful at this their initiative misfiring or develop feelings of guilt . might parents stifle a child initiative ?

During the elementary school stage ( ages ) children face the task of industry versus inferiority . Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up . They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork , sports , social activities , and family life , or they feel inferior and inadequate when they do measure up . What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities ?

In adolescence ( ages ) children face the task of identity versus role confusion . According to , an adolescent main 82 Chapter Lifespan Theories task is developing a sense of self . Adolescents struggle with questions such as Who am I ?

and What do I want to do with my life ?

Along the way , most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit . Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other perspectives . What happens to apathetic adolescents , who do not make a conscious search for identity , or those who are pressured to conform to their parents ideas for the future ?

These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion . They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future . People in early adulthood ( ie , the through early ) are concerned with intimacy versus isolation . After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence , we are ready to share our life with others . said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others . Adults who do not develop a positive in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation . When people reach their 405 , they enter the time known as middle adulthood , which extends to the . The social task of middle adulthood is versus stagnation . involves finding your life work and contributing to the development of others , through activities such as volunteering , mentoring , and raising children . Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation , having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and . From the to the end of life , we are in a period of development known as late adulthood . task at this stage is called integrity versus despair . said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure . People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity , and they can look back on their lives with few regrets . However , people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted . They focus on what would have , should have , and could have been . They face the end of Chapter Lifespan Theories 83

their lives with feelings of bitterness , depression , and despair . Table summarizes the stages of son theory . Psychosocial Stages of Development Table Age Developmental Stage ( years ) Task Description Trust ( or mistrust ) that basic needs , such as nourishment and affection , will be met Autonomy . Develop a sense of independence in doubt many tasks . Take initiative on some Ve develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped Ind Develop in abilities . when competent or sense of inferiority inferiority when not 1248 Identity . Experiment with and develop identity confusion and roles Intimacy . Establish intimacy and relationships isolation with others Contribute to society and be part of a stagnation family Integrity Assess and make sense of life and . despair meaning of contributions Cognitive Theory of Development Jean ( is another stage theorist who studied childhood development ( Figure ) Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective , focused on children cognitive growth . He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are 84 Chapter Lifespan Theories

naturally inquisitive . However , he said that children do not think and reason like adults ( 1930 , 1932 ) His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages , which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development . As we progress to a new stage , there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason . Jean spent over 50 years studying children and how their minds develop . Figure ) said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world . Schemata are concepts ( mental models ) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information . By the time children have reached adulthood , they have created schemata for almost Chapter Lifespan Theories 85

everything . When children learn new information , they adjust their schemata through two processes assimilation and accommodation . First , they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata assimilation is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know . Accommodation describes when they change their schemata based on new information . This process continues as children interact with their environment . For example , Blake learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever . When Blake sees other dogs in his picture books , he says , Look mommy , dog ! Thus , he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs . One day , Blake sees a sheep for the first time and says , Look mommy , dog ! Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur , Blake thinks all furry , creatures are dogs . When Blake mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep , not a dog , Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences . Blake schema for a dog was too broad since not all furry , creatures are dogs . He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep . Like Freud and , thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges . He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages sensorimotor , concrete operational , and formal operational ( Table ) 86 Chapter Lifespan Theories

Stages of Cognitive Development Table A . mental ( Ears ) Stage Description issues Object . The world experienced permanence through senses and actions Stranger anxiety Use words and images to represent things , but lack logical reasoning development Understand concrete events Conservation Concrete and analogies logically . Mathematical per transformations operations Formal Formal operations operational Utilize abstract reasoning reasoning The first stage is the sensorimotor stage , which lasts from birth to about years old . During this stage , children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior . Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible , and once they can grasp objects , they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds . Between and months old , the child develops object permanence , which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight , it still exists ( Schilling , 2000 ) According to , young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight . studied infants reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket . Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy , indicating that they knew it still existed , whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused . Please take a few minutes to view this brief video above Chapter Lifespan Theories 87

demonstrating different children ability to understand object permanence . In view , around the same time children develop object permanence , they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety , which is a fear of unfamiliar people . Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger , by clinging to a caregiver , or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents . Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema therefore , she ca predict what her experience with that stranger will be like , which results in a fear response . second stage is the stage , which is from approximately to years old . In this stage , children can use symbols to represent words , images , and ideas , which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play . A child arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room , or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword . Children also begin to use language in the stage , but they can not understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information ( the term operational refers to logical manipulation of information , so children at this stage are considered to be ) Children logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far , rather than on conventional knowledge . For example , dad gave a slice of pizza to and another slice to her brother , Kenny . Kenny pizza slice was cut into five pieces , so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did . Children in this stage can not perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of conservation , which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something , it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added . During this stage , we also expect children to display egocentrism , which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others . A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees , thinks , and feels just as they do . Let look at Kenny and again . birthday is coming up , so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store 88 Chapter Lifespan Theories

to choose a present for his sister . He selects an Iron Man action figure for her , thinking that if he likes the toy , his sister will too . An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective . third stage is the concrete operational stage , which occurs from about to 11 years old . In this stage , children can think logically about real ( concrete ) events they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies . They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations , such as addition is the opposite of subtraction , and multiplication is the opposite of division . In this stage , children also master the concept of conservation Even if something changes shape , its mass , volume , and number stay the same . For example , if you pour water from a tall , thin glass to a short , fat glass , you still have the same amount of water . Remember and Kenny and the pizza ?

How did know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza ?

Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of reversibility , which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition . Take , for example , water that you poured into the short , fat glass You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount ( minus a couple of drops ) The fourth , and last , stage in theory is the formal operational stage , which is from about age 11 to adulthood . Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events , children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations . Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve , look at alternative solutions , and test these solutions . In adolescence , a renewed egocentrism occurs . For example , a with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible , under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions . Chapter Lifespan Theories 89

Beyond Formal Operational Thought As with other major contributors to theories of development , several of ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research . For example , several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than discrete stages ( Courage Howe , 2002 , 2005 , 2006 ) Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than describes ( 2004 de , 2010 ) According to , the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought , which develops between 11 and 20 years old . However , many developmental psychologists disagree with , suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development , known as the post formal stage ( 1984 Commons , 2006 , 1998 ) In post formal thinking , decisions are made based on situations and circumstances , and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on . One way that we can see the difference between an adult in post formal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues . It seems that once we reach adulthood our abilities change As we attempt to solve problems , we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives , such as relationships , work , and politics ( 1999 ) Because of this , post formal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems . strategies using post formal thought vary , depending on the situation . What does this mean ?

Adults can recognize , for example , that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other . 90 Chapter Lifespan Theories Theory Development A major task beginning in childhood and continuing into adolescence is discerning right from wrong . Psychologist Lawrence ( extended upon the foundation that built regarding cognitive development . believed that moral development , like cognitive development , follows a series of stages . To develop this theory , posed moral dilemmas to people of all ages , and then he analyzed their answers to find evidence of their particular stage of moral development . Before reading about the stages , take a minute to consider how you would answer one of moral dilemmas , commonly known as the dilemma In Europe , a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer . There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her . It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered . The drug was expensive to make , but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make . He paid 200 for the radium and charged for a small dose of the drug . The sick woman husband , went to everyone he knew to borrow the money , but he could only get together about , which is half of what it cost . He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later . But the druggist said No , I discovered the drug and I going to make money from So got desperate and broke into the man store to steal the drug for his wife . Should the husband have done that ?

1969 , 379 ) How would you answer this dilemma ?

was not interested Chapter Lifespan Theories 91 in whether you answer yes or no to the dilemma Instead , he was interested in the reasoning behind your answer . After presenting people with this and various other moral dilemmas , reviewed people responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning ( Figure ) According to , an individual progresses from the capacity for conventional mortality ( before age ) to the capacity for conventional morality ( early adolescence ) and toward attaining morality ( once formal operational thought is attained ) which only a few fully achieve . placed in the highest stage responses that reflected the reasoning that should steal the drug because his wife life is more important than the pharmacist making money . The value of human life overrides the pharmacist greed . stage stage Level Obedience Individual interest and punishment behavior driven by three levels morality behavior driven and of by avoiding rewards . I reasoning . sage conventional Level Interpersonal . Authority , and behavior driven by behavior driven by Conventional . post convent . I a In . to social order level is associated with stage stage increasingly Social contract Universal I . lex behavior behavior driven by Sta morality balance of social internal moral order and principles moral individual rights ( Figure ) It is important to realize that even those people who have the most sophisticated , reasons for some choices may make other choices for the simplest of reasons . Many psychologists agree with theory of moral 92 Chapter Lifespan Theories

development but point out that moral reasoning is very different from moral behavior . Sometimes what we say we would do in a situation is not what we actually do in that situation . In other words , we might talk the talk , but not walk the How does this theory apply to males and females ?

1969 ) felt that more males than females move past stage four in their moral development . He went on to note that women seem to be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities . These ideas were not well received by Carol , a research assistant of , who consequently developed her own ideas of moral development . In her groundbreaking book , In a Different Voice Psychological Theory and Development , 1982 ) criticized her former mentor theory because it was based only on White men and boys . She argued that women are not deficient in their moral proposed that males and females reason differently . Girls and women focus more on staying connected and the importance of interpersonal relationships . Therefore , in the dilemma , many girls and women respond that should not steal the medicine . Their reasoning is that if he steals the medicine , is arrested , and is put in jail , then he and his wife will be separated , and she could die while he is still in prison . Additional Resources This brief video demonstrates different children ability to understand object permanence according to Jean Stages of Cognitive Development in stage one sensorimotor stage . Chapter Lifespan Theories 93

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here ?

This video shows a boy in the stage as he responds to conservation tasks in the Stages of Cognitive Development . 94 Chapter Lifespan Theories A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here ?

developed the Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children . Children view a mountain scene from one viewpoint and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene . Watch the Task in action in this short video from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota which represents stage . Chapter Lifespan Theories 95

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here ?

Summary There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy , healthy adults . Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass through a series of psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused on certain erogenous zones on the body . Eric modified Freud ideas and suggested a theory of psychosocial development . said that our social interactions and successful completion of social tasks shape our sense of self . Jean proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains how children think and reason as they move through various stages . Finally , Lawrence turned his attention to 96 Chapter Lifespan Theories

moral development . He said that we pass through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development . Attribution Adapted from Chapter Lifespan Theories in , Psychology . Oct , 2019 contents . Download for free . Chapter Lifespan Theories 97