Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Part I Chapter 1 How we Use Our Expectations

PART THE PERSON IN ENVIRONMENT Learning Objectives Explore the Person in Environment Approach Describe the Micro , Mezzo , and Macro Approach Describe the Approach I Describe Systems Theory I Describe Ecological Theory I Describe Ecosystems Theory I Introduce Strengths Perspective The Person in Environment 11

Vignette Jason parents have been called by the school social worker to discuss concerns related to fighting with a peer and declining grades . His parents also report concerns at home with poor sibling relationships , anger issues , and a bad attitude , always talking back , never listening or doing what we ask him to do . They report a long family history of substance abuse and mental health issues ( anxiety and depression ) They report increased concerns related to this as they recently found marijuana in Jason room . Jason ( 14 ) reports My parents do know what they talking about . My little brother and sister just get me in trouble because I don let them touch my stuff , besides , my parents do care , they do listen to me , they just want me to do what they say . And I don see what the big deal is with me smoking a little weed , it helps me feel better and not be so mad all the What comes to mind when you hear ?

This approach is the concept that people can be heavily influenced by their environment . It highlights the importance of understanding an individual and their behavior through their environment . A person environment , along with their experiences , will help shape the way they view the world , how they think , and why they respond the way they do . In Social Work , gathering information from our clients is a foundation piece of the work we do and knowing what 12 The Person in Environment

information to seek and how to organize it is like gathering pieces of a puzzle and working to put them together to get the whole picture ( or at least as much of it as we can ) This lesson will begin to introduce some particular approaches , perspectives , and theories that help build the lens and foundation of the Social Work profession . Micro , Mezzo , and Macro We will first start with the Micro , Mezzo , and Macro Approach . This is simply looking at levels within a persons system , which will help give you some direction in what supports may be needed . The represents individual needs and involves direct interactions with clients , which is the most common type of work . This level explores aspects related to biology , needs , social ( peer ) and interpersonal ( family ) relationships or supports , and spiritual beliefs . Jason micro level Biologically no physical health issues have been reported but some concerns may be related to how use of marijuana may affect his physical health . He is an adolescent which means his body continues to experience hormonal and physical changes . Family reports history of substance abuse issues as well as struggles with mental health issues , which may indicate possible genetic connections to be explored . This may also be connected to psychological needs as he may be experiencing anxiety or depressive symptoms or if he reports use of marijuana as a coping mechanism . He is The Person in Environment 13

also reported to present with anger , fighting with his siblings and struggling with strained family relationships . This connects us to social aspects , exploring how he identifies his relationships and supports . No spiritual beliefs were reported in the vignette but would need to be explored when meeting with Jason . The represents connections or interactions with smal groups , such as family , schools , churches , neighborhoods , community organizations , and . Jason mezzo level Here we would look further into how his relationships and interactions with various groups impact him family , peers , school , possible spiritual , and any community groups or organizations he identifies being connected with . The represents connections to systemic issues within large systems , such as , policy , healthcare systems , and international associations . This level also explores , historical impacts of group experiences , and how discrimination and prejudice can impact marginalized populations . Jason macro level policies , mental health policies , healthcare systems , culture and historical 14 The Person in Environment

impacts of group experiences , drag laws and policies , and possible discrimination and prejudice impacts need to be explored . It is important to remember to explore the interconnectedness interactions between what information is presenting on each leve or the person and how this may have an impact on their functioning and development within their environment . The Approach assesses levels of functioning within biological , psychological , social , and spiritual dimensions ( and how they are connected ) to help understand human behavior . This approach includes much of the same information you will find in the Micro level but we are wanting to take a deeper look at how the individual is functioning in each dimension as well as how they can impact one another . The Biological component includes aspects related to health , physical abilities , weight , diet , lifestyle , substance use , gender , and genetic . Jason biological aspect No concerns with overall physical health , developmental aspects of adolescence need to be considered , substance use concerns and impacts , identifies as male , and possible genetic The Person in Environment 15

( substance abuse , anxiety , depression , or any other family history of concern ) The Psychological component includes aspects related to health , temperament , coping skills , emotions , learning , memory , perceptions , and personality . Jason psychological aspect Anger , substance use concerns and impacts , possible esteem issues , poor coping skills and emotional regulation , cognitive development and any related concerns , personality and temperament characteristics , and explorations of how he perceives his world . The Social component includes aspects related to peer and family relationships , social supports , cultural traditions , education , security , socioeconomic status , and messages . Jason social aspect Strained family relationships , school supports , exploration of socioeconomic impacts , exploration of cultural traditions , 16 The Person in Environment

and of peer relationships and supports . The Spiritual component includes aspects related to spiritual or religious beliefs , or belief in a higher being or higher power they eel connected to or supported by . Jason spiritual aspect No spiritual aspects were reported but we would want to explore what this means to Jason . Does he with a church , religion , or higher ?

What does it mean to him ?

Does it bring any support and comfort or is it causing increased stress as he is working to figure out what it all means ?

Looking at each dimension of the Approach allows you to engage in a more holistic exploration assessment of a person as it examines and connects four important domains of their life . Systems Theory Systems Theory states behavior is influenced by a result of factors that work together as a system and are interconnected each part plays an important role in the function of the whole , and the whole in turn supports and sustains the parts . A person family , friends , school , work , economic class , home environment , and other factors all influence how a person thinks and acts . A social worker must The Person in Environment 17

observe and assess all of the systems a person experiences , as they contribute to their behavior and , and work to strengthen those systems as they are connected and influence one another . This is used to develop a holistic view of individuals within their environment , which is then used to lead to the most appropriate practice intervention . Within Systems Theory we will also explore roles ( routine tasks and behaviors of people within a system ) We all have roles and engage in them whether we recognize it or not . Some examples of roles are leader , caretaker , parent , child , sibling , enabler , scapegoat , citizen , spouse , and worker . Many people feel their roles identify them . This may reinforce behaviors when positive feelings or experiences are associated with the role ( or maybe a motivator for change when the role ( are connected to more negative feelings or experiences . Knowing what roles a person is engaged in , and how they perceive each role , will support your work in understanding their experiences and what needs are presenting . Ecological Theory Ecological Theory focuses on the interaction between the individual and their environment . It discusses the active involvement of people with their environments and development as well as both ( continuously changing . Thoughts become perception , Perception becomes reality . Alter your thoughts , Alter your William James An important reminder of this theory is to remember the importance of perception how people perceive or interpret their environment and experiences influences their overall functioning or . This is also regardless of how problems or concerns may appear to the social worker . You will need to explore how the client views their situation before assuming certain situations are problematic . We need to try and see it through their eyes and get 18 The Person in Environment

an understanding of how they were feeling . It is their story their reality . In social work practice , this can best be understood by looking at individuals , families , policies , communities , and cultures and identifying strengths and weaknesses in the processes between the systems . Ecological Systems Model used to explore Ecosystems Theory believed an individual development was everything in their surrounding environment and divided the environment into five different levels the , the , the , the , and the . The is the system closest to the individual and the one in which they have direct interactions . Some examples include home , school , or work . A typically includes family , peers , or caregivers . Relationships in a are directional , meaning , how you respond and react to the people will affect their response and reaction to you . This is the most influential level within the theory . The is where a person individual are interconnected and influence one another . These interactions have an indirect impact on the individual , which can be positive or negative depending on the elements of the system working together ( positive ) or working against each other ( negative ) The refers to a setting in which the person is not an active participant , but still affects them . This includes decisions The Person in Environment 19

that affect a person , but they have no abilities . An example of this would be a child affected by a parent losing a job . The is the cultural environment in which the person lives and all other systems that affect them such as economy , cultural values , and political systems . The encompasses transitions and shifts throughout a person life . It looks at the timing of the event in relation to a person development , such as how death affects children of different ages . Historical events that occur during a persons life are also explored such as the impacts of the September attacks . Jason stor With use of Systems Theory , we will want to look at aspects of micro , mezzo , and macro levels as well as dimensions above and how they interact and one another . Here we will also explore what roles Jason feels he engages in ( son , brother , student , friend ) as well as roles he may not recognize or identify ( leader , caretaker ( if he is asked to help with caring for younger siblings ) or role model ) We will also want to explore how Jason perceives each role ( positive or negative ) to gain a better understanding of his experience and work in supporting his needs . With use of Ecological Theory , we add the addition of looking at how development and environment continue to grow and change , and how this continues to impact our clients as they engage within their systems . Ecosystems Theory takes from both Systems Theory and Ecological Theory , combining major tenets from each and providing us the opportunity to look deeper into the complexity of each network a client experiences and gain a better 20 The Person in Environment

understanding of how they interact and impact one another . Strengths Perspective A foundational perspective of Social Work is the Strengths Perspective . All people have strengths and abilities that allow them to grow and adapt . This perspective takes the focus off the problem and allows us to identify ways for clients to use their strengths in achieving their goals . Clients are seen as the experts of their experiences . We utilize their insights to explore times of resiliency and partner with them to identify supports and solutions and help support their ability to grow . It is also important to remember to evaluate the environment for possible barriers and impacts while assessing needs and strengths . The Person in Environment 21

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PRACTICE meaning , definition , explanation A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here Jason Strength Family support , both biological parents in home and still together , awareness of family history , school supports , able bodied , no developmental delays reported ( but should be explored if any concerns connected to this ) has found a coping skills ( even it is not the most appropriate way , he is engaging in some self regulation work ) and was able to engage with the school Social Worker during their meeting instead of remaining closed off and refusing to speak . 22 i The Person in Environment

What other strengths can you identify ?

How would you work to explore and identify strengths with Jason ?

Exploration of Strengths The following link will discuss strengths based practice values and explore the types of questions Dennis ( University of Kansas , a pioneer in developing and promoting Strengths Based Practice ) suggests to use to help assess strengths of our clients . The example questions have a focus on parental interactions but the examples and ideas can be expanded to working with any client population . uploads 2018 Please continue on to Chapter How We Use Our Expectations to explore more about our expectations , judgments , responses , biases . The Person in Environment 23

Key Takeaways I Think about a person whole experience . What does that encompass ?

Childhood ?

Family ?

Friends ?

What else comes to mind ?

I We need to look at their experiences at each level and within different systems , as well as how they interact , to get the whole picture ( Person in Environment ) I The Strength Perspective is a foundational perspective in the field of Social Work . It states all people have strengths and often times these strengths can be found within their struggles . References The . 2017 , May ) What is PRACTICE ?

What does PRACTICE mean ?

Video file . Youtube . watch ?

24 The Person in Environment Chapter I How We Use Our Expectations Provide examples of how salience and accessibility information processing . Review , differentiate and give examples of the cognitive that social judgment . Summarize and give examples of the importance of social cognition in everyday life . Once we have developed a set of and attitudes , we naturally use that information to help us judge and respond to others . Our expectations help us think about , size up , and make sense of individuals , groups of people , and the relationships among people . If we have learned , for example , that someone is friendly and interested in us , we are likely to approach them if we have learned that they are threatening or unlikable , we will be more likely to withdraw . And if we believe that a person has committed a crime , we may process new information in a manner that helps convince us that our judgment was correct . In this section , we will consider how we use our stored knowledge to come to accurate ( and sometimes inaccurate ) conclusions about our social worlds . Table How Expectations Influence Our Social Cognition summarizes the Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 25

concepts that we will discuss , some of the many ways that our existing and attitudes how we respond to the information around us . Table How Expectations Influence Our Social Cognition 26 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations Cognitive Process Cognitive accessibility Salience Representativeness heuristic Availability heuristic Anchoring and adjustment thinking False consensus bias Overconfidence Description Some and attitudes are more accessible than others . Some stimuli , such as those that are unusual , colorful , or moving , grab our attention . We tend to make judgments according to how well the event matches our expectations . Things that come to mind easily tend to be seen as more common . Although we try to adjust our judgments away from them , our decisions are overly based on the things that are most highly accessible in memory . We may replay events such that they turn out when only minor changes in the events leading up to them make a difference . We tend to see other people as similar to us . We tend to have more confidence in our skills , abilities , and judgments than is objectively warranted . Example We may think a lot about our new haircut because it is important for us . We may base our judgments on a single unusual event and ignore hundreds of other events that are more usual . After a coin has come up heads many times in a row , we may erroneously think that the next flip is more likely to be tails . We may overestimate the crime statistics in our own area because these crimes are so easy to recall . We may buy more of a product when it is advertised in bulk than when it is advertised as a single item . We may feel particularly bad about events that might not have occurred if only a small change might have prevented them . We are surprised when other people have different political opinions or values . Eyewitnesses are often extremely confident that their identifications are accurate , even when they are not . Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 27

Automatic Versus Controlled Cognition A good part of both cognition and social cognition is spontaneous or automatic . Automatic cognition refers to thinking that occurs out of our awareness , quickly , and without taking much effort ( Ferguson Bargh , 2003 Ferguson , Bargh , 2008 ) The things that we do most frequently tend to become more automatic each time we do them until they reach a level where they do really require us to think about them very much . Most of us can ride a bike and operate a television remote control in an automatic way . Even though it took some work to do these things when we were first learning them , it just doesn take much effort anymore . And because we spend a lot of time making judgments about others , many of these judgments ( and particularly those about people we do know very well and who do matter much to us ) are made automatically ( Willis , 2006 ) Because automatic thinking occurs outside of our conscious awareness , we frequently have no idea that it is occurring and influencing our judgments or behaviors . You might remember a time when you came back from your classes , opened the door to your dorm room , and 30 seconds later couldn remember where you had put your keys ! You know that you must have used the keys to get in , and you know you must have put them somewhere , but you simply don remember a thing about it . Because many of our everyday judgments and behaviors are performed on automatic , we may not always be aware that they are occurring or influencing us . It is , of course , a good thing that many things operate automatically because it would be a real pain to have to think about them all the time . If you couldn drive a car automatically , you would be able to talk to the other people riding with you or listen to the radio at the same have to be putting most of your attention into driving . On the other hand , relying on our snap judgments about she likely to be expressive , for 28 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

be erroneous . Sometimes we need beyond automatic cognition and consider people more carefully . When we deliberately size up and think about instance another call it thoughtful cognition or controlled cognition . Although you might think that controlled cognition would be more common and that automatic thinking would be less likely , that is not always the case . The problem is that thinking takes effort and time , and we often do have too many of those things available . As a result , we frequently rely on automatic cognition , and these outside of our a big effect on our behaviors . In the following Research Focus , we will consider an example of a study that uses a common social cognitive procedure known as priming a technique in which information is temporarily brought into memory through exposure to situational that shows that priming can judgments entirely out of awareness . Research Focus Behavioral Effects of Priming In one demonstration of how automatic cognition can influence our behaviors without us being aware of them , John Bargh and his colleagues ( Bargh , Chen , Burrows , 1996 ) conducted two studies , each with the exact same procedure . In the experiments , they showed college students sets of five scrambled words . The students were to unscramble the five words in each set to make a sentence . Furthermore , for half of the research participants , the words were related to the stereotype of Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 29

the elderly . These participants saw words such as in Florida retired live people and bingo man the forgetful plays . The other half of the research participants also made sentences but did so out of words that had nothing to do with the elderly stereotype . The purpose of this task was to prime ( activate ) the schema of elderly people in memory for some of the participants but not for others . The experimenters then assessed whether the priming of elderly stereotypes would have any effect on the students indeed it did . When each research participant had gathered all his or her belongings , thinking that the experiment was over , the experimenter thanked him or her for participating and gave directions to the closest elevator . Then , without the participant knowing it , the experimenters recorded the amount of time that the participant spent walking from the doorway of the experimental room toward the elevator . As you can see in the following figure , the same results were found in both participants who had made sentences using words related to the elderly stereotype took on the behaviors of the walked significantly more slowly ( in fact , about 12 more slowly across the two studies ) as they left the experimental room . Figure Autumn tic Priming and Behavior 30 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations Walking um i sad

In two separate experiments , Bargh , Chen , and ( 1996 ) found that students who had been exposed to words related to the elderly stereotype walked more slowly than those who had been exposed to more neutral words . To determine if these priming effects occurred out of the conscious awareness of the participants , Bargh and his colleagues asked the third group of students to complete priming task and then to indicate whether they thought ' words they had used to make the sentences had any relationship to each other or could possibly have influenced behavior in any way . These students had no awareness of the possibility that the words might have been related to elderly or could have influenced their behavior . The point of these experiments , and many others like ' is is quite possible that our judgments and behaviors are influenced by our social situations , and this influence may be entirely outside of our conscious awareness . To return again to Bianca , it is even possible we notice her nationality and that our beliefs about Italians influence our responses to her , even though we have no idea that they are doing so and really believe that have not . It is in this way that our stereotypes may have their insidious effects , and it is exactly these processes that may have led to a mistaken eyewitness account in the case of Rickie Johnson . Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 31

Salience and Accessibility Determine Which Expectations We Use We each have a large number of that we might bring to bear on any type of judgment we might make . When thinking about Bianca , for instance , we might focus on her nationality , her gender , her physical attractiveness , her intelligence , or any of many other possible features . And we will react to Bianca differently depending on which we use . Schema activation is determined both by characteristics of the person we are salience of the by the current activation of the schema in the cognitive accessibility of the schema . Salience One determinant of which are likely to be used in social justice is the extent to which we attend to particular features of the person or situation that we are responding to . We are more likely to judge people on the basis of characteristics that are salient , meaning that they attract our attention when we see something or someone with them . Things that are unusual , negative , colorful , bright and moving are more salient and thus more likely to be attended to than are things that do not have these characteristics ( Post , 1977 Taylor , 1978 ) 32 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

Which of these people are more salient and therefore more likely to attract your attention ?

Erich Ferdinand The BY Jump Session Finished ! We are more likely to initially judge people on the basis of their sex , race , age , and physical attractiveness , rather than on , say , their religious orientation or their political beliefs , in part because these features are so salient when we see them ( Brewer , 1988 ) Another thing that makes something particularly salient is its infrequency or unusualness . Because Bianca is from Italy and very few other people in our school are , that characteristic is something that we is salient , and we are therefore likely to attend to it . That she is also a woman least in this salient . The salience of the stimuli in our social worlds may sometimes lead us to make judgments on the basis of information that is actually less informative than is other less salient information . Imagine , for instance , that you wanted to buy a new music player for yourself . You been trying to decide whether to get the iPod or the . You went online and checked out Consumer Reports , and you found that although the players differed on many dimensions , including price , battery life , ability to share music , and so forth , the was nevertheless rated significantly higher by the owners than was the iPod . As a result , you decide to go purchase one the next day . That night , however , you go to a party , and a friend of yours shows you her iPod . You check it out , and it seems really great . You Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 33

tell her that you were thinking of buying a , and she tells you that you are crazy . She says she knows someone who had one and had a lot of didn download music right , the battery went out right after it went out of warranty , and so that she would never buy one . Would you still buy the , or would you switch your plans ?

If you think about this question logically , the information that you just got from your friend isn really all that now know the opinions of one more person , but that ca really change the overall consumer ratings of the two machines very much . On the other hand , the information your friend gives you and the chance to use her iPod is highly salient . The information is right there in front of you , in your hand , whereas the statistical information from Consumer Reports is only in the form of a table that you saw on your computer . The outcome in cases such as this is that people frequently ignore the less salient , but more important , information , such as the likelihood that events occur across a large statistics are known as base rates in favor of the actually less important , but nevertheless more salient , information . Another case in which we ignore information occurs when we use the representativeness heuristic ( remember that heuristic refers to a simplifying strategy that we use to make judgments ) The representativeness heuristic occurs when we base our judgments on information that seems to represent , or match , what we expect will happen while ignoring more informative rate information . Consider , for instance , the following puzzle . say that you went to a hospital , and you checked the records of the babies that were born today ( Table Using the Representativeness Heuristic ) Which pattern of births do you think that you are most likely to find ?

Table Using the Representativeness Heuristic 34 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations List A List am . Girl am . Boy am . Girl am . Girl am . Girl am . Boy . Girl . Girl . Boy . Girl . Boy . Boy . Boy . Girl . Boy . Boy Most people think that list is more likely , probably because list looks more random and thus matches ( is representative of ) our ideas about randomness . But statisticians know that any pattern of four girls and four boys is equally likely and thus that List is no more likely than List A . The problem is that we have an image of what randomness should be , which doesn always match what is rationally the case . Similarly , people who see a coin that comes up heads five times in a row will frequently predict ( and perhaps even bet ! that tails will be just seems like it has to be . But mathematically , this erroneous expectation ( known as the gambler fallacy ) is simply not true The likelihood of any single coin flip being tails is only 50 , regardless of how many times it has come up heads in the past . To take one more example , consider the following information I have a friend who is short , shy and writes poetry . Which of the following is she ?

Choose one . A professor of psychology . A professor of Chinese Can you see how you might be led , potentially incorrectly , into thinking that my friend is a professor of Chinese ?

Why ?

Because the description ( short , shy , and writes poetry ) just seems so representative or stereotypical of our expectations about Chinese Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 35 people . But the base rates tell us something completely different , which might make us wary . For one , because I am a psychology professor , it much more likely that I know more psychology professors than Chinese professors . And at least on my campus , the number of professors in the psychology department is much bigger than the number of professors of Chinese . Although base rates suggest that psychology would be the right answer , the use of the representative heuristic might lead us ( probably incorrectly ) to guess Chinese instead . Cognitive Accessibility Although which characteristics we use to think about objects or people is determined in part by the salience of their characteristics ( our perceptions are influenced by our social situation ) individual differences in the person who is doing the judging are also important ( our perceptions are influenced by person variables ) People vary in the that they find important to use when judging others and when thinking about themselves . One way to consider this importance is in terms of the cognitive accessibility of the schema . Cognitive accessibility refers to the extent to which a schema is activated in memory and thus likely to be used in information processing . You probably know people who are golf nuts ( or maybe tennis or some other sports nuts ) All they can talk about is golf . For them , we would say that golf is a highly accessible construct . Because they love golf , it is important to their they set many of their goals in terms of the sport , and they tend to think about things and people in terms of it ( if he plays golf , he must be a good person ! Other people have highly accessible about eating healthy food , exercising , environmental issues , or really good coffee , for instance . In short , when a schema is accessible , we are likely to use it to make judgments of ourselves and others . 36 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

Although accessibility can be considered a person variable ( a given idea is more highly accessible for some people than for others ) accessibility can also be influenced by situational factors . When we have recently or frequently thought about a given topic , that topic becomes more accessible and is likely to influence our judgments . This is , in fact , the explanation for the results of the priming study you read about walked slower because the concept of the elderly had been primed and thus was currently highly accessible for them . Because we rely so heavily on our and particularly on those that are salient and can sometimes be overly influenced by them . Imagine , for instance , that I asked you to close your eyes and determine whether there are more words in the English language that begin with the letter or that have the letter as the third letter . You would probably try to solve this problem by thinking of words that have each of the characteristics . It turns out that most people think there are more words that begin with , even though there are in fact more words that have as the third letter . You can see that this error can occur as a result of cognitive accessibility . To answer the question , we naturally try to think of all the words that we know that begin with and that have in the third position . The problem is that when we do that , it is much easier to retrieve the former than the latter because we store words by their first , not by their third , letter . We may also think that our friends are nice people because we see them primarily when they are around us ( their friends ) And the traffic might seem worse in our own neighborhood than we think it is in other places , in part because nearby traffic jams are more accessible for us than are traffic jams that occur somewhere else . And do you think it is more likely that you will be killed in a plane crash or in a car crash ?

Many people fear the former , even though the latter is much more likely Your chances of being involved in an aircraft accident are about in 11 million , whereas your chances of being killed in an automobile accident are in people are killed Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 37

on US . highways every year . In this case , the problem is that plane crashes , which are highly salient , are more easily retrieved from our memory than are car crashes , which are less extreme . The tendency to make judgments of the frequency of an event or the likelihood that an event will occur , on the basis of the ease with which the event can be retrieved from memory is known as the availability heuristic ( Schwarz Vaughn , 2002 , 1973 ) The idea is that things that are highly accessible ( in this case , the term availability is used ) come to mind easily and thus may overly influence our judgments . Thus , despite the clear facts , it may be easier to think of plane crashes than car crashes because the former are so highly salient . If so , the availability heuristic can lead to errors in judgments . Still another way that the cognitive accessibility of constructs can influence information processing is through their effects on processing . Processing fluency refers to the ease with which we can process information in our environments . When stimuli are highly accessible , they can be quickly attended to and processed , and they , therefore , have a large influence on our perceptions . This influence is due , in part , to the fact that our body reacts positively to information that we can process quickly , and we use this positive response as a basis of judgment ( Schwarz , 1998 , 2001 ) In one study demonstrating this effect , Schwarz and his colleagues ( Schwarz et , 1991 ) asked one set of college students to list occasions when they had acted either assertively or and asked another set of college students to list 12 such examples . Schwarz determined that for most students , it was pretty easy to list examples but pretty hard to list 12 . The researchers then asked the participants to indicate how assertive or unassertive they actually were . You can see from Figure Processing Fluency that the ease of processing influenced judgments . The participants who had an easy time listing examples of their behavior ( because they only had to list instances ) judged 38 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

that they did in fact have the characteristics they were asked about ( either assertive or unassertive ) in comparison with the participants who had a harder time doing the task ( because they had to list 12 instances ) Other research has found similar rate that they ride their bicycles more often after they have been asked to recall only a few rather than many instances of doing so ( 1999 ) and they hold an attitude with more confidence after being asked to generate few rather than many arguments that support it ( Haddock , Schwarz , 1999 ) 12 I I Fluency Assertive 10 dimension When it was relatively easy to complete the questionnaire ( only examples were required ) the student participants rated that they had more of the trait than when the task was more difficult ( 12 answers were required ) Data are from Schwarz et al . 1991 ) We are likely to use this type of quick and intuitive processing , based on our feelings about how easy it is to complete a task when we dont have much time or energy for more processing , such as when we are under time pressure , tired , or unwilling to process the stimulus in sufficient detail . Of course , it is very adaptive to respond to stimuli quickly ( 2002 West , 2002 , Schwarz , 2002 ) and it is not impossible that in at least some cases , we are better off making decisions based on our initial responses than on a more thoughtful cognitive analysis ( Weber , Welch , 2001 ) For instance , and van ( 2006 ) found that when participants were given tasks requiring decisions that Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 39

were very difficult to make on the basis of cognitive analysis of the problem , they made better decisions when they did try to analyze the details carefully but simply relied on their unconscious intuition . In sum , people are not only by the information they get but by how they get it . We are more highly influenced by things that are salient and accessible and thus easily attended to , remembered , and processed . On the other hand , information that is harder to access from memory is less likely to be attended to , or takes more effort to consider is less likely to be used in our judgments , even if this information is statistically equally informative or even more informative . The False Consensus Bias Makes Us Think That We Are More Like Others Than We Really Are The tendency to base our judgments on the accessibility of constructs can lead to still other errors in judgment . One such error is known as the false consensus bias the tendency to the extent to which other people are similar to us . For instance , i you are in favor of abortion rights , opposed to gun control , prefer rock music to jazz , then you are likely to think that other people share these beliefs ( Ross , Greene , House , 1977 ) In one demonstration of the false consensus bias , his colleagues ( Clement , 1994 ) gave their research participants , who were college students , a personality test . Then they asked the same participants to estimate the percentage other students in their school who would have answered the questions the same way that they did . The students who with the items thought that others would agree with them too , whereas the students who disagreed thought that others also disagree . You can see that the false consensus bias also occurs through the operation of cognitive accessibility Once we have 40 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

indicated our own belief , it becomes highly accessible , and it colors our estimates about other people . Although it is commonly observed , the false consensus bias does not occur in all dimensions . Specifically , the false consensus bias is not usually observed on judgments of positive personal traits that we highly value as important . People ( falsely , of course ) report that they have better personalities ( a better sense of humor ) that they engage in better behaviors ( they are more likely to wear seat belts ) and that they have brighter futures than almost everyone else ( Chambers , 2008 ) These results suggest that although in most cases we assume that we are similar to others , in cases of valued personal characteristics the goals of lead us to see ourselves more positively than we see the average person . Perceptions of What Might Have Been Lead to Thinking In addition to influencing our judgments about ourselves and others , the salience and accessibility of information can have an important effect on our own instance , our esteem . Our emotional reactions to events are often colored not only by what did happen but also by what might have happened . If we can easily imagine an outcome that is better than what actually happened , then we may experience sadness and disappointment on the other hand , if we can easily imagine that a result might have been worse than what actually happened , we may be more likely to experience happiness and satisfaction . The tendency to think about events according to what might have been known as thinking ( 1997 ) Imagine , for instance , that you were participating in an important contest , and you won the silver medal . How would you feel ?

Certainly , you would be happy that you won , but wouldn you probably also be thinking a lot about what might have happened if Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 41 you had been just a little bit might have won the gold medal ! On the other hand , how might you feel if you won the bronze medal ( third place ) If you were thinking about the ( the what might have been ) perhaps the idea of not getting any medal at all would have been highly be happy that you got the medal you did get . and ( 1995 ) investigated exactly this idea by videotaping the responses of athletes who won medals in the 1992 summer Olympic Games . They videotaped the athletes both as they learned that they had won a silver or a bronze medal and again as they were awarded the medal . Then they showed these videos , without any sound , to people who did not know which medal which athlete had won . The indicated how they thought the athlete was feeling , on a range from agony to The results showed that the bronze medalists did indeed seem to be , on average , happier than were the silver medalists . Then in a study , watched interviews with many of these same athletes as they talked about their performance . The indicated what we would expect on the basis of silver medalists talked about their disappointments in having finished second rather than first , whereas the bronze medalists focused on how happy they were to have finished third rather than fourth . 42 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

Does the bronze medalist look happier to you than the silver medalist ?

and ( 1995 ) found that , on average , bronze medalists were happier than silver medalists . Commons . You might have experienced thinking in other situations . I remember once that I was driving across the country and my car was having some engine trouble . I really , really wanted to make it home when I got near the end of my journey because I could tell that I was going to be very disappointed if the car broke down only a few miles before I got home ( it would have been really easy to have imagined making it the whole way , making it even more painful if I did not ) thinking has even been observed on who are asked to award monetary damages to others who had been in an accident offered them substantially more in compensation if they were almost not injured than they did if the accident did not seem close to not occurring ( Miller , Turnbull , 1988 ) Again , the moral of the story is thinking is frequently influenced by processes that we are not aware of and that may lead us to make judgments that seem reasonable but are objectively Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 43

inaccurate . In the case of thinking , the cognitive accessibility of the potential alternative outcome leads to some very paradoxical effects . Anchoring and Adjustment Lead Us to Accept Ideas That We Should Revise In some cases , we may be aware of the danger of acting on our expectations and attempt to adjust for them . Perhaps you have been in a situation where you are beginning a course with a new professor and you know that a good friend of yours does not like him . You may be thinking that you want to go beyond your negative expectations and prevent this knowledge from your judgment . However , the accessibility of the initial information frequently prevents this adjustment from us to anchor on the initial construct and not adjust sufficiently . This is called the problem of anchoring and adjustment . and ( 1974 ) asked some of the student participants in one of their studies to solve this multiplication problem quickly and without using a calculator They asked other participants to solve this problem They found that students who saw the first problem gave an estimated answer of about 512 , whereas the students who saw the second problem estimated about . and argued that the students could solve the whole problem in their head , so they did the first few and then used the outcome of this preliminary calculation as their starting point , or anchor . Then the participants used their starting estimate to find an answer that sounded plausible . In both cases , the estimates were too low relative to the true value of the product ( which is 44 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

) the first set of guesses was even lower because they started from a lower anchor . Of course , savvy marketers have long used the anchoring phenomenon to help them . You might not be surprised to hear that people are more likely to buy more products when they are listed as four for than when they are listed as each ( leading people to anchor on the four and perhaps adjust only a bit away ) and when a sign says buy a dozen rather than buy And it is no accident that a car salesperson always starts negotiating with a high price and then works down . The salesperson is trying to get the consumer anchored on the high price with the hope that it will have a big influence on the final sale value . Overconfidence Still another potential judgmental bias , and one that has powerful and often negative effects on our judgments , is the tendency to be overconfident in our own skills , abilities , and judgments . We often have little awareness of our own limitations , leading us to act as if we are more certain about things than we should be , particularly on tasks that are difficult . Adams and Adams ( 1960 ) found that for words that were difficult to spell , people were correct in spelling them only about 80 of the time , even though they indicated that they were 100 certain that they were correct . David Dunning and his colleagues ( Dunning , Griffin , Ross , 1990 ) asked college students to predict how another student would react in various situations . Some participants made predictions about a fellow student whom they had just met and interviewed , and others made predictions about their roommates . In both cases , participants reported their confidence in each prediction , and accuracy was determined by the responses of the target persons themselves . The results were clear Regardless of whether they Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 45

judged a stranger or a roommate , the students consistently overestimated the accuracy of their own predictions ( Figure ) so 70 . to Figure ( cued Roommate Judged Dunning et al . 1990 ) found that , regardless of whether they were judging strangers or their roommates , students were overconfident . The percentage confidence that they assigned to their own predictions was significantly higher than the actual percentage of their predictions that were correct . Making matters even worse , and Dunning ( 1999 ) found that people who scored low rather than high on tests of spelling , logic , grammar , and humor appreciation were also most likely to show overconfidence by overestimating how well they would do . Apparently , poor performers are doubly not only are unable to predict their own skills but also are the most unaware that they ca do so ( Dunning , Johnson , 2003 ) The tendency to be overconfident in our judgments can have some very negative effects . When eyewitnesses testify in courtrooms regarding their memories of a crime , they often are completely sure that they are identifying the right person . But their confidence does correlate much with their actual accuracy . This is , in part , why so many people have been wrongfully convicted on the basis of inaccurate eyewitness testimony given by overconfident witnesses ( Wells , 2003 ) The Importance of Cognitive Biases in Everyday 46 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

Life Perhaps you are thinking that the use of and the tendency to be influenced by salience and accessibility do seem that really cares if we buy an iPod when the is better , or if we think there are more words that begin with the letter than there actually are ?

These aren big problems in the overall scheme of things . But it turns out that what seems perhaps to be pretty small errors and biases on the surface can have profound consequences for people . For one , if the errors occur for a lot of people , they can really add up . Why would so many people continue to buy lottery tickets or to gamble their money in casinos when the likelihood of them ever winning is so low ?

One possibility , of course , is the representative ignore the low base rates of winning and focus their attention on the salient likelihood of winning a huge prize . And the belief in astrology , which all scientific evidence suggests is not accurate , is probably driven in part by the salience of the occasions when the predictions do a horoscope is correct ( which it will , of course , be sometimes ) the correct prediction is highly salient and may allow people to maintain the ( overall false ) belief . People may also take more care to prepare for unlikely events than for more likely ones because the unlikely ones are more salient or accessible . For instance , people may think that they are more likely to die from a terrorist attack or as a result of homicide than they are from diabetes , stroke , or tuberculosis . But the odds are much greater of dying from the health problems than from terrorism or homicide . Because people do accurately calibrate their behaviors to match the true potential risks , the individual and societal costs are quite large ( 2000 ) Salience and accessibility also color how we perceive our social worlds , which may have a big influence on our behavior . For instance , people who watch a lot of violent television shows also tend to view the world as more dangerous in comparison to those Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 47

who watch less violent ( Doob Macdonald , 1979 ) This follows from the idea that our judgments are based on the accessibility of relevant constructs . We also overestimate our contribution to joint projects ( Ross , 1979 ) perhaps in part because our own contributions are so obvious and salient , whereas the contributions of others are much less so . And the use of cognitive can even affect our views about global warming . Barnes , Truelove , and ( 2010 ) found that people were more likely to believe in the existence of global warming when they were asked about it on hotter rather than colder days and when they had first been primed with words relating to heat . Thus the principles of salience and accessibility , because they are such an important part of our social judgments , can create a series of biases that can make a difference . Research has found that even people who should know who need to know subject to cognitive biases . Economists , stock traders , managers , lawyers , and even doctors have been found to make the same kinds of mistakes in their professional activities that people make in their everyday lives ( 2000 , Griffin , 2002 Hilton , 2001 ) And the use of cognitive is increased when people are under time pressure ( 1983 ) or when they feel threatened ( 2009 ) exactly the situations that may occur when professionals are required to make their decisions . Although biases are common , they are not impossible to control , and psychologists and other scientists are working to help people make better decisions . One possibility is to provide people with better feedback . Weather forecasters , for instance , are quite accurate in their decisions , in part because they are able to learn from the clear feedback that they get about the accuracy of their predictions . Other research has found that accessibility biases can be reduced by leading people to consider multiple alternatives rather than focusing only on the most obvious ones , and particularly by leading people to think about exactly the opposite possible 48 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

outcomes than the ones they are expecting ( Markman , 2004 ) And people can also be trained to make better decisions . For instance , and ( 1988 ) found that graduate students in medicine , law , and chemistry , but particularly those in psychology , all showed significant improvement in their ability to reason correctly over the course of their graduate training . Social Psychology in the Public Interest The Validity of Eyewitness Testimony As we have seen in the story of Rickie Johnson that opens this chapter , one social situation in which the accuracy of our skills is vitally important in the area of eyewitness testimony ( Wells , 2007 , Read , Ross , Lindsay , 2007 Wells , 2006 ) Every year , thousands of individuals such as Rickie Johnson are charged with and often convicted of crimes based largely on eyewitness evidence . In fact , more than 100 people who were convicted prior to the existence of forensic DNA have now been exonerated by DNA tests , and more than 75 of these people were victims of mistaken eyewitness identification ( Wells , 2006 Fisher , 2011 ) The judgments of eyewitnesses are often incorrect , and there is only a small correlation between how accurate and how confident an eyewitness is . Witnesses are frequently overconfident , and one who claims to be absolutely certain about his or her identification is not much more likely to be accurate than one who appears much less sure , making it Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 49

almost impossible to determine whether a particular witness is accurate or not ( Wells , 2003 ) To accurately remember a person or an event at a later time , we must be able to accurately see and store the information in the first place , keep it in memory over time , and then accurately retrieve it later . But the social situation can influence any of these processes , causing errors and biases . In terms of initial encoding of the memory , crimes normally occur quickly , often in situations that are accompanied by a lot of stress , distraction , and arousal . Typically , the eyewitness gets only a brief glimpse of the person committing the crime , and this may be under poor lighting conditions and from far away . And the eyewitness may not always focus on the most important aspects of the scene . Weapons are highly salient , and if a weapon is present during the crime , the eyewitness may focus on the weapon , which would draw his or her attention away from the individual committing the crime ( 1997 ) In one relevant study , and ( 1987 ) showed people slides of a customer walking up to a bank teller and pulling out either a pistol or a checkbook . By tracking eye movements , the researchers determined that people were more likely to look at the gun than at the checkbook and that this reduced their ability to accurately identify the criminal in a lineup that was given later . People may be particularly inaccurate when they are asked to identify members of a race other than their own ( Bennett , Mitchell , 2007 ) In one field study , for example , and ( 2001 ) sent White , Black , and Hispanic students into convenience stores in El Paso , Texas . Each of the students made a 50 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

purchase , and the researchers came in later to ask the clerks to identify photos of the shoppers . Results showed that the White , Black , and Mexican American clerks demonstrated the bias They were all more accurate at identifying customers belonging to their own racial or ethnic group than they were at identifying people from other groups . There seems to be some truth to the adage that They all look alike least if an individual is looking at someone who is not of his or her race . One source of error in eyewitness testimony is the relative difficulty of accurately identifying people who are not of ane own race . Kira Westland sisters Sisters Bill Lile Brothers . Even if information gets encoded properly , memories may become distorted over time . For one thing , people might discuss what they saw with other people , or they might read the information relating to it from other bystanders or in the media . Such information can distort the original memories such that the witnesses are no longer sure what the real information is and what was provided later . The problem is that the new , inaccurate information is highly cognitively accessible , whereas the older information is much less so . Even describing a face Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 51

makes it more difficult to recognize the face later ( Johnson , Schooler , 1997 ) In an experiment by and Palmer ( 1974 ) participants viewed a film of a traffic accident and then , according to random assignment to experimental conditions , answered one of three questions . About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other ?

About how fast were the cars going when they smashed each other ?

About how fast were the cars going when they contacted each other ?

As you can see in the following figure , although all the participants saw the same accident , their estimates of the speed of the cars varied by condition . People who had seen the smashed question estimated the highest average speed , and those had seen the contacted question estimated the lowest . Huh ! am , Memory Participants viewed a film of a traffic accident and then answered a question about the accident . According to random assignment , the blank was filled by either hit , smashed , or contacted each other . The wording of the question influenced the participants memory of the accident . Data are from and Palmer ( 1974 ) 52 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

The situation is particularly problematic when the eyewitnesses are children because research has found that children are more likely to make incorrect identifications than are adults ( Lindsay , 1998 ) and are also subject to the identification bias ( Moore , 2003 ) In many cases , when sex abuse charges have been filed against babysitters , teachers , religious officials , and family members , the children are the only source of evidence . The likelihood that children are not accurately remembering the events that have occurred to them creates substantial problems for the legal system . Another setting in which eyewitnesses may be inaccurate is when they try to identify suspects from mug shots or lineups . A lineup generally includes the suspect and five to seven other innocent people ( the fillers ) and the eyewitness must pick out the true perpetrator . The problem is that eyewitnesses typically feel pressured to pick a suspect out of the lineup , which increases the likelihood that they will mistakenly pick someone ( rather than no one ) as the suspect . Research has attempted to better understand how people remember and potentially misremember the scenes of and people involved in crimes and to attempt to improve how the legal system makes use of eyewitness testimony . In many states , efforts are being made to better inform judges , juries , and lawyers about how inaccurate eyewitness testimony can be . Guidelines have also been proposed to help ensure those child witnesses are questioned in a way ( Poole Lamb , 1998 ) Steps can also be taken to ensure that lineups yield more accurate eyewitness identifications . Lineups are fairer when the fillers resemble the suspect when the interviewer Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 53

makes it clear that the suspect might or might not be present ( Lindsay , 2001 ) and when the eyewitness has not been shown the same pictures in a book prior to the lineup decision . And several recent studies have found that witnesses who make accurate identifications from a lineup reach their decision faster than do witnesses who make mistaken identifications , suggesting that authorities must take into consideration not only the response but how fast it is given ( Dunning , 2002 ) In addition to distorting our memories for events that have actually occurred , misinformation may lead us to falsely remember information that never occurred . and her colleagues asked parents to provide them with descriptions of events that did ( moving to a new house ) and did not ( being lost in a shopping mall ) happen to their children . Then ( without telling the children which events were real or ) the researchers asked the children to imagine both types of events . The children were instructed to think real hard about whether the events had occurred ( Ceci , Smith , 1994 ) More than half of the children generated stories regarding at least one of the events , and they remained insistent that the events did in fact occur even when told by the researcher that they could not possibly have occurred ( 1995 ) Even college students are susceptible to manipulations that make events that did not actually occur seem as if they did ( 81 Kirsch , 2001 ) The ease with which memories can be created or implanted is particularly problematic when the events to be recalled have important consequences . Therapists often 54 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

argue that patients may repress memories of traumatic events they experienced as children , such as childhood sexual abuse , and then recover the events years later as the therapist leads them to recall the instance , by using dream interpretation and hypnosis ( Brown , Hammond , 1998 ) But other researchers argue that painful memories such as sexual abuse are usually very well remembered , that few memories are actually repressed and that even if they are , it is virtually impossible for patients to accurately retrieve them years later ( McNally , Bryant , 2003 Pope , Parker , Hudson , 2007 ) These researchers have argued that the procedures used by the therapists to retrieve the memories are more likely to actually implant false memories , leading the patients to erroneously recall events that did not actually occur . Because hundreds of people have been accused , and even imprisoned , on the basis of claims about recovered memory of child sexual abuse , the accuracy of these memories has important societal implications . Many psychologists now believe that most of these claims of recovered memories are due to implanted , rather than real , memories ( 1994 ) Taken together , then , the problems of eyewitness testimony represent another example of how social processes that we use to size up and remember other be influenced , sometimes in a way that creates inaccurate perceptions , by the operation of salience , cognitive accessibility , and other processing biases . Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 55

Summary We use our and attitudes to help us judge and respond to others . In many cases , this is appropriate , but our expectations can also lead to biases in our judgments of ourselves and others . A good part of our social cognition is spontaneous or automatic , operating without much thought or effort . On the other hand , when we have the time and the motivation to think about things carefully , we may engage in thoughtful , controlled cognition . Which expectations we use to judge others are based on both the situational salience of the things we are judging and the cognitive accessibility of our own and attitudes . Variations in the accessibility of lead to biases such as the availability heuristic , the representativeness heuristic , the false consensus bias , and biases caused by thinking . The potential biases that are the result of everyday social cognition can have important consequences , both for us in our everyday lives but even for people who make important decisions affecting many other people . Although biases are common , they are not impossible to control , and psychologists and other 56 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

scientists are working to help people make better decisions . The operation of cognitive biases , including the potential for new information to distort information already in memory , can help explain the tendency for eyewitnesses to be overconfident and frequently inaccurate in their recollections of what occurred at crime scenes . Give an example of a time when you may have committed one of the cognitive errors listed in Table How Expectations Influence Our Social Cognition . What factors ( availability ?

salience ?

caused the error , and what was the outcome of your use of the shortcut or heuristic ?

Go to the website , which analyzes the extent to which people accurately perceive streakiness in sports . Consider how our sports perceptions are by our expectations and the use of cognitive . Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 57 References , A . 1999 ) How often did I do it ?

Experienced ease of retrieval and frequency estimates of past behavior . Acta , 103 ( Adams , Adams , 1960 ) Confidence in the recognition and reproduction of words difficult to spell . American Journal of Psychology , 73 , Bargh , Chen , Burrows , 1996 ) Automaticity of social behavior Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 71 ( Brewer , 1988 ) A model of impression formation . In ( Advances in social cognition ( Vol . Bennett , Mitchell , 2007 ) The of race on eyewitness memory . Lawrence Associates Publishers . Brown , Hammond , 1998 ) Memory , trauma treatment , and the law . New York , NY Norton . A . 2000 ) thinking about actions and failures to act . Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning , Memory , and Cognition , 26 ( Ceci , Smith , 1994 ) Repeatedly thinking about a Source among preschoolers . Consciousness and Cognition An International Journal , Chambers , 2008 ) Explaining false uniqueness Why we are both better and worse than others . Social and Personality Psychology Compass , Wells , 2007 ) Eyewitness lineups instruction a good idea ?

Law and Human Behavior , 31 ( van , 58 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations ( 2006 ) On making the right choice The attention effect . Science , 311 ( Johnson , Schooler , 1997 ) The verbal overshadowing effect Why descriptions impair face recognition . Memory Cognition , 25 ( Doob , Macdonald , 1979 ) Television viewing and fear of victimization Is the relationship causal ?

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 37 ( Dunning , Griffin , Ross , 1990 ) The overconfidence effect in social prediction . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 58 ( Dunning , Johnson , 2003 ) Why people fail to recognize their own incompetence . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 12 ( Dunning , 2002 ) Automaticity and eyewitness accuracy A to rule for distinguishing accurate from inaccurate positive identifications . Journal of Applied Psychology , 87 ( Ferguson , Bargh , A . 2003 ) The constructive nature of automatic evaluation . In ( The psychology of evaluation Affective processes in cognition and emotion ( Lawrence Associates Publishers . Ferguson , Bargh , A . 2008 ) Implicit motivation Past , present , and future . In Shah Gardner ( Handbook of motivation science ( New York , NY Press . Fisher , 2011 ) Editor introduction Special issue on psychology and law . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 20 , Griffin , 2002 ) and biases The psychology of intuitive judgment . New York , NY Cambridge University Press . Haddock , Schwarz , 1999 ) Forming judgments of attitude certainty , intensity , and importance The Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 59

role of subjective experiences . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 25 , Hilton , 2001 ) The psychology of financial Applications to trading , dealing , and investment analysis . Journal of Behavioral Finance , doi , Markman , 2004 ) Activating a mental simulation through generation of alternatives Implications for in related and domains . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 40 ( Barnes Truelove , 2010 ) Effect of outdoor temperature , heat primes and anchoring on belief in warming . Journal of Environmental Psychology , 30 ( 2009 ) Decisions under distress Stress profiles influence anchoring adjustment . Psychological Science , 20 ( 11 ) Clement , 1994 ) The truly false consensus effect An ineradicable and egocentric bias in social perception . of Personality and Social Psychology , 67 ( Dunning , 1999 ) Unskilled and unaware of it How difficulties in recognizing one own incompetence lead to inflated . Journal of Personality and Psychology , 77 ( 1983 ) The freezing and unfreezing of lay inferences Effects on impressional primacy , ethnic stereotyping , and numerical anchoring . Journal of Social Psychology , 19 , 1988 ) The effects of graduate training on reasoning Formal discipline and thinking about events . American Psychologist , 43 ( Weber , Welch , 2001 ) Risk as feelings . Psychological Bulletin , 127 ( 1994 ) The myth of repressed memory 60 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

False memories and allegations of sexual abuse ( New York , NY Martin Press . 1987 ) Some facts about weapon Law and Human Behavior , 11 ( Palmer , 1974 ) Reconstruction of automobile destruction An example of the interaction between language and memory . Journal of Verbal Learning Verbal Behavior , 13 ( 1995 ) The formation of false memories . Psychiatric Annals , 25 ( 12 ) Kirsch , I . 2001 ) Changing beliefs about implausible autobiographical events A little plausibility goes a long way . Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied , Post , 1977 ) Figural emphasis and person perception . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 13 ( McNally , Bryant , A . 2003 ) Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress ?

Psychological Science in the Public Interest , 1995 ) When less is more thinking and satisfaction among Olympic medalists . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69 ( 2001 ) Thirty years of investigating the bias in memory for faces A review . Psychology , Public Policy , and Law , Miller , Turnbull , 1988 ) Particularistic and universalistic evaluation in the social comparison process . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 55 , Moore , 2003 ) Children face recognition memory More evidence for the effect . Journal of Applied Psychology , 88 ( Poole , Lamb , 1998 ) The development of interview protocols . Washington , American Psychological Association . Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 61

Pope , Parker , Hudson , I . 2007 ) Is dissociative amnesia a syndrome ?

Findings from a survey of historical literature . Psychological Medicine A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences , 37 ( Lindsay , 1998 ) Identification accuracy of children versus adults A . Law and Human Behavior , 22 ( Schwarz , 1998 ) Effects of perceptual fluency on affective judgments . Psychological Science , 2001 ) Mind at ease puts a smile on the face Psychophysiological evidence that processing facilitation elicits positive affect . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 81 ( 1997 ) thinking . Psychological Bulletin , 121 ( Ross , Greene , House , 1977 ) The false consensus effect An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 13 ( Ross , 1979 ) Egocentric biases in availability and attribution . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 37 ( Schwarz , Bless , Strack , Simons , A . 1991 ) Ease of retrieval as information Another look at the availability heuristic . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 61 , Schwarz , Vaughn , A . 2002 ) The availability heuristic revisited Ease of recall and content of recall as distinct sources of information . New York , NY Cambridge University Press . A . 2002 ) Two systems of reasoning . New York , NY Cambridge University Press . 2000 ) The perception of risk . London , England Publications . West , 2002 ) Individual differences in 62 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations

reasoning Implications for the rationality debate ?

New York , NY Cambridge University Press . Lindsay , 2001 ) Eyewitness accuracy rates in sequential and simultaneous lineup presentations A comparison . Law and Human Behavior , 25 ( 1997 ) Social influence in eyewitness recall A analytic review of lineup instruction effects . Law and Human Behavior , 21 ( Taylor , 1978 ) Salience , attention and attribution Top of the head phenomena . in Experimental Social Psychology , 11 , Read , Ross , Lindsay , 2007 ) The handbook of eyewitness psychology ( Lawrence Associates Publishers . 1973 ) Availability A heuristic for judging frequency and probability . Cognitive Psychology , 1974 ) Judgment under uncertainty and biases . Science , 185 ( 4157 ) Wells , 2006 ) Eyewitness evidence Improving its probative value . Psychological Science in the Public Interest , Wells , A . 2003 ) Eyewitness testimony . Annual Review of Psychology , 54 , Willis , A . 2006 ) First impressions Making up your mind after a exposure to a face . Psychological Science , 17 ( Schwarz , A . 2002 ) Affect and processing dynamics Perceptual fluency enhances evaluations . Amsterdam , Netherlands John Benjamins Publishing Company . Chapter How We Use Our Expectations 63

Attribution Adapted from Chapter from Principles of Social Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons International License , except where otherwise noted . 64 Chapter How We Use Our Expectations