General Psychology An Introduction Chapter 6 States of Consciousness

Chapter States of Consciousness States of Consciousness Robert jake Teeny No matter what you homework , playing a video game , simply picking out a of your actions and decisions relate to your consciousness . But as frequently as we use it , have you ever stopped to ask yourself What really is consciousness ?

In this module , we discuss the different levels of consciousness and how they can affect your behavior in a variety of situations . As well , we explore the role of consciousness in other , altered states like hypnosis and sleep . Learning Objectives Define consciousness and distinguish between high and low conscious states Explain the relationship between consciousness and bias Understand the difference between popular portrayals of hypnosis and how it is currently used therapeutically Introduction Have you ever had a fellow motorist stopped beside you at a red light , singing his brains out , or picking his nose , or otherwise behaving in ways he might not normally do in public ?

There is something about being alone in a car that encourages people to zone out and forget that others can see them . And although these little lapses of attention are amusing for the rest of us , they are also instructive when it comes to the topic of consciousness .

States of Consciousness 33 Consciousness is a term meant to indicate awareness . It includes awareness ofthe self , of bodily sensations , of thoughts and of the environment . In , we usethe opposite word unconscious to indicate senselessness or a barrier to awareness , as in the case of Theresa fell offthe ladder and hit her head , knocking herself And yet , psychological theory and research suggest that consciousness and unconsciousness are more complicated than falling off a This guy is singing his heart out in his mobile music That is is more than studio . Have you ever done this ?

being OF Off . For , Sigmund Freud ( 1856 1939 ) the most influential psychologist of all that even while we are awake , many things lay outside the realm ofour conscious awareness ( like being in the car and forgetting the rest of the world can see into your windows and hear your singing ) In response to this notion , Freud introduced the concept of the subconscious ( and proposed that some of our memories and even our basic motivations are not always accessible to our conscious minds . Upon reflection of what constitutes this awareness of consciousness , though , it is easy to see how slippery a topic it is . For example , are people conscious when they daydreaming ?

What about when they drunk ?

Clearly , consciousness is more of a continuum than an state of being . In this module , we will describe several levels of consciousness and then discuss altered states of consciousness such as hypnosis and sleep . Levels of Awareness In 1957 , a marketing researcher inserted the words Eat Popcorn onto one frame of a film being shown all across the United States . And although that frame was only on screen for ofa speed too fast to be perceived by conscious researcher reported an increase in popcorn sales by nearly 60 . Almost immediately , all forms of subliminal messaging were regulated in the US and banned in countries such as Australia and the United Kingdom . And even though it was later shown that the researcher had made upthe data ( he had even inserted the words into the ) about influences on our subconscious persists . At its heart , this issue pits various levels of awareness against one another . On the one hand , we have the low awareness of subtle , even subliminal

States of Consciousness 34 influences . On the other hand , there is conscious thinking , which includes all that you are currently aware of , even reading this sentence . However , when we consider these different levels of awareness separately , we can better understand how they operate . Low Awareness Outside of being in a coma , you are constantly receiving and evaluating sensory information . Although any moment has too many sights , smells , and sounds for them all to be consciously considered , our brains are nonetheless processing all that information . For example , have you ever been at a party , overwhelmed by all the people and conversation , when out of nowhere you hear your name called ?

Even though you have no idea what else the person is saying , you are somehow conscious ofyour name ( for more on this , the cocktail party effect , see Module on Attention ) So , even though you may not be aware stimuli in your environment , your brain is paying closer attention than you think . Similar to a reflex ( when startled ) some cues in our environment , or significant sensory information , will automatically elicit a response from us even though we never consciously perceive it . For example , and ( took participants with a fear and connected them to a machine that measured subtle variations in sweating . The researchers then flashed pictures of different items ( mushrooms , flowers , and most importantly , snakes ) on a screen in front ofthem , but did so at speeds that left the participant clueless to what he or she had actually seen . However , when snake pictures were flashed , these participants started sweating more ( a sign of fear ) even though they had no idea what they just viewed ! because our brains perceive these stimuli without our conscious awareness , do they really affect our subsequent thoughts and behaviors ?

In a landmark study , Bargh , Chen , and words about the elderly ( old , grandma ) or something random ( tomato ) Afterward , the researchers secretly measured how fast the participants walked down the hallway exiting the experiment . And although none of the participants were aware ofa theme to the answers , those who had solved a puzzle with elderly words ( those random ones ) walked more slowly down the hallway ! This effect called priming ( readily activating certain concepts and associations from one memory ) has been replicated in a number of other studies . For example , priming the people by having them drink from a warm glass ( a cold one ) resulted in behaving more toward others ( Williams Bargh , 2008 ) Although all ofthese influences occur beneath one

States of Consciousness Priming Studies and Replication If the results of priming studies sound too fantastic to be believed , you are not alone in your skepticism . Recently , many studies in many priming come under scrutiny not replicate . This means later researchers have attempted to recreate certain studies , they have not always gotten the or even . does not suggest that the original researchers faked the results , but that there may have been in the original sampling or research methods . Fortunately , researchers are very aware of the problem of 135 conscious awareness , they still have a significant effect on ones subsequent thoughts and behaviors . In the last two decades researchers have made advances in studying aspects of psychology that exist beyond conscious awareness . As you can understand , it is difficult to use and surveys to ask people about motives or beliefs that they , themselves , might not even be aware of ! One way of this difficulty replication and have taken steps to address the issue . For an exploration of the can be found in the implicit associations test , or ( replication crisis in psychology , please see the module on that topic . assess people to various stimuli and is a very difficult test to fake because it records automatic reactions that occur in milliseconds . For instance , to shed light on deeply held biases , the might present photographs of Caucasian faces and Asian faces while asking research participants to click buttons indicating either good or bad as quickly as possible . This method can help uncover biases as well as those that we are motivated to suppress . Even if the participant clicks good for every face shown , the can still pick up minute delays in responding . Delays are associated with more mental effort needed to process information . When information is processed in the example of white faces as good can be contrasted with slower processing in the example of Asian faces as good the difference in processing speed is reflective of bias . In this regard , the has been used for investigating stereotypes ( 2002 ) as well as ( 2000 ) High Awareness just because we may be influenced by these invisible factors , it does mean we are helplessly controlled by them . The other side of the awareness continuum is known as high This is what you think effortful attention and decision making . For example , when you listen to a funny story on a date , consider which class schedule would be preferable , or complete a complex math problem , you are engaging a state of consciousness that allows you to be highly aware focused on particular details in your environment .

States of Consciousness 136 African American European American or Bad the keys do not work , mouse inside me white box and try again . If the red appears , press the other key to make the red go away . An actual screenshot from an ( Association Test ) that a person might take to test their own mental representations of various cognitive constructs . Inthis , towards members of various ethnic groups . Courtesy of Anthony from Project Implicit Mindfulness is a state of this heightened conscious awareness of the thoughts passing through one head . For example , have you ever snapped at someone in frustration , only to take a moment and reflect on why you responded so aggressively ?

This more effortful consideration of your thoughts could be described as an expansion of your conscious awareness asyou considerthe possible influences on . Research , persuaded by irrelevant yet influences , like the presence ofa celebrity in an advertisement ( Petty Constantly , we alternating between low and high thinking states the less we paying attention , the more likely we influenced by stimuli ( 1980 ) And although these subliminal influences may have an effect on us regardless of how we thinking , we can use our higher conscious awareness to blunt or even reverse the effect of them . In what known as the Flexible Correction Model ( Petty , 1997 ) as long as people are aware that their thoughts or behavior is being influenced by an undue , outside

States of Consciousness 37 source , they will correct their attitude against the bias . To help make this relationship between lower and higher conscious thoughts clearer , imagine the brain is like a train terminal and all of our thoughts are the different trains you can ride . Sometimes , when you , on that , ifyou more mindful of your thoughts , you can pause to consider all the various trains and select the one that will best get you to your destination . But this analogy , and all the other research we discussed , has only applied to your standard conception of consciousness . So what about other sleeping , daydreaming , or hypnosis are these related to our conscious awareness ?

Some people practice meditation . This has been linked to lower stress and higher Other States of Consciousness being . Paul Hypnosis If you ever watched a stage hypnotist perform , it may paint a misleading portrait of this state of consciousness . The hypnotized people on stage , for example , appear to be in a state similar to sleep . However , as the hypnotist continues with the show , you would recognize some profound differences between sleep and hypnosis . Namely , when asleep , hearing the word strawberry does make you flap your arms like a chicken . In stage performances , the hypnotized participants appear to be highly suggestible , to the point that they are seemingly under the hypnotist control . Such performances are entertaining but have a way of People being hypnotized on stage . New Media Expo sensationalizing the true nature of hypnotic states . Hypnosis is an actual , documented that has been studied and debated

States of Consciousness 138 ( Low Awareness by subtle factors Saves mental effort High Awareness Uses mental effort Can overcome some biases Table States of Consciousness . for over 200 years ( al ) Franz ( 1734 181 ) is often credited as among the first people to discover hypnosis , which he used to treat members of elite society who were experiencing psychological distress . It is from name that we get the English word , mesmerize meaning to entrance or transfix a person attention . attributed the effect of hypnosis to animal magnetism , a supposed universal force ( similar to gravity ) that operates through all human bodies . Even at the time , such an account of hypnosis was not scientifically supported , and himself was frequently the center of controversy . Over the years , researchers have proposed that hypnosis is a mental state characterized by reduced peripheral awareness and increased focus on a singular stimulus , which results in an enhanced susceptibility to suggestion ( For example , the hypnotist will usually induce hypnosis by getting the person to pay attention only to the hypnotist voice . As the individual focuses more and more on that , begins to forget the context of the setting and responds to the hypnotist suggestions as if they were his or her own . Some people are naturally more suggestible , and therefore more hypnotizable than are others , and this is especially true for those who score high in empathy ( II , than others . Regardless of one predisposition to being hypnotized , this mental state relies on two psychological processes a dissociation of the self , and reduction in elaborative ( or ) thinking ( Dissociation is the separation of one awareness from everything besides what one is centrally focused on . For example , if you ever been daydreaming in class , you were likely so caught up in the fantasy that you did hear a word the teacher said . During hypnosis , this dissociation becomes even more extreme . That is , a person concentrates so much on the words ofthe hypnotist that loses perspective ofthe rest ofthe world around them . As a consequence , a person is less effortful , and less in consideration of his or her own thoughts and behaviors . Similar to low awareness states , where one often acts on the first thought that comes to mind , so , too , in hypnosis does the individual simply follow the first thought that comes to mind , the hypnotist suggestion . just because

States of Consciousness 139 one is more susceptible to suggestion under hypnosis , it does mean will do anything that ordered . To be hypnotized , you must first want to be hypnotized ( you ca be hypnotized against your will Lynn , 2006 ) and once you are hypnotized , you wo do Today , hypnotherapy is still used in a variety of formats , and it has evolved from , suggestion , motivation and to create a desired mental or behavioral state . Although there is mixed evidence on whether hypnotherapy can help with addiction reduction ( quitting smoking Abbot et a 1998 ) there is some evidence that it can be successful in study examined the treatment of burn patients with either hypnotherapy , a placebo condition ) or no treatment at all . Afterward , even though people in the placebo condition experienced a 16 decrease in pain , those in the actual hypnosis condition experienced a reduction of nearly 50 ( Thus , even though hypnosis may be sensationalized for television and movies , its ability to disassociate a person from their environment ( or their pain ) in conjunction with increased suggestibility to a recommendations ( you will feel less anxiety about your chronic pain ) is a documented practice with actual medical benefits . Now , similar to hypnotic states , trance states also involve a dissociation of the self however , are actions . Trance states often occur in religious ceremonies , where the person believes he or she is possessed by an otherworldly being or force . While in trance , people report anecdotal accounts ofa higher consciousness or communion with a greater power . However , the body this tends to the claim that these ex constitute an altered state of Most researchers today describe both hypnosis and trance states as subjective alterations of consciousness , not an actually distinct or evolved form ( Just like you feel different when you in a state relaxation , so , too , are hypnotic and trance states simply shifts from the standard conscious experience . Researchers contend that even though both hypnotic and trance states appear and feel wildly different than the normal human experience , they can be explained by standard factors like imagination , expectation , and the interpretation of the situation . Sleep

States of Consciousness 40 You may have experienced the sensation , of falling and then found yourself jerking forward and grabbing out as ifyou were . Sleep is a unique state of consciousness . People generally follow a biological clock that impacts when they naturally become drowsy , when they fall asleep , and the time they naturally awaken . The hormone melatonin increases at night and Sleep is necessary in order for people to function well Image is associated with becoming sleepy . Your natural daily rhythm , or Circadian Rhythm , can be influenced by the amount of daylight to which you are exposed as well as and activity schedule . Changing your location , such as flying from Canada to England , can disrupt your natural sleep rhythms , and we call lag . You can overcome jet lag by synchronizing yourself to the local schedule by exposing yourself to daylight and forcing yourself to stay awake even though you are naturally sleepy . Interestingly , sleep morethan shutting night ( nap ) Instead off like a light with a flick of a switch , your shift in consciousness is reflected in your electrical activity . While you are awake and alert your brain activity is marked by beta waves . Beta waves are characterized by being high in frequency but low in intensity . In addition , they are the most inconsistent brain wave and this reflects the wide variation in sensory input that a person processes during the day . As you begin to relax these change to alpha waves . These waves reflect brain activity that is less frequent , more consistent and more intense . As you slip into actual sleep you transition through stages of sleep , each characterized by its own unique pattern of brain activity Stage is alight sleep and is marked by theta waves Stage is deeper sleep ( here there are sleep , or occasional very high intensity brain waves ) Stage is marked by greater muscle relaxation and the appearance of delta waves Stage is very relaxed and marked by delta waves Stage sleep marked by rapid eye movement ( REM ) It is here that people dream most vividly . Interestingly , this stage brain activity is to

States of Consciousness 141 wakefulness . That is , the brain waves occur less intensely than in other stages of sleep . Dreams are , arguably , the most interesting have been given special importance Awake because of their unique , almost mystical Sag nature . They have been thought to be ' a predictions of the future , hints of hidden ' aspects ofthe self , important lessons about how to live life , or opportunities to engage in impossible deeds like flying . There are ' several competing theories humans 10 12 14 16 18 20 dream . One is that it is our nonconscious Time ( seconds ) attempt to make sense of our daily experiences and learning . Another , popularized Figure . Changes in brain different by Freud is that reams represent taboo or stages of consciousness from being awake and throughout troublesome Wishes or desires . Regardless of the specific reason we know a few facts about dreams all humans dream , we dream at every stage of sleep , but dreams during REM various stages of sleep . sleep are especially vivid . One under explored area of dream research is the possible social functions we often share our dreams with others and use them for entertainment value . Sleep serves many functions , one of which is to give us a period of mental and physical restoration . Children generally need more sleep than adults since they are developing . It is so vital , in fact , that a lack of sleep is associated with a wide range of problems . People who do not receive adequate sleep are more irritable , have slower reaction time , have more difficulty sustaining attention , and make poorer decisions . Interestingly , this is an issue relevant to the lives of college students . In one highly cited study researchers found that in students took more than 30 minutes to fall asleep at night , in 10 occasionally took sleep medications , and more than half reported being mostly tired in the mornings ( al , 2001 ) Psychoactive Drugs On April 16 , 1943 , Albert Swiss chemist working in a pharmaceutical accidentally ingested a newly synthesized drug . The acid ( turned out to be a powerful hallucinogen . Hoffman went home and later reported the effects

States of Consciousness 42 ofthe drug , describing them as seeing the world through a warped mirror and experiencing visions of extraordinary shapes with intense , kaleidoscopic play of colors . Hoffman had discovered what members of cultures around the world already knew there are substances that , when ingested , can have a powerful effect on perception and on consciousness . Drugs operate on human physiology in a variety and researchers and medical doctors tend to classify drugs according to their effects . Here we will briefly cover categories hallucinogens , and stimulants . Hallucinogens It is possible that hallucinogens are the substance that have , historically , been used the most widely . Traditional societies have used hallucinogens such as peyote , and psilocybin mushrooms in a wide range of religious ceremonies . Hallucinogens are substances that alter a person perceptions , often by creating visions or hallucinations that are not real . There are a wide range of hallucinogens and many are used as recreational substances in industrialized societies . Common examples include marijuana , and , also known as ecstasy . Marijuana is the dried flowers ofthe hemp plant and is often smoked to produce euphoria . The active ingredient in marijuana is called and can produce distortions in the perception of time , can create a sense of rambling , unrelated thoughts , and is sometimes associated with increased hunger or excessive laughter . The use and possession of marijuana is illegal in most places but this appears to be a trend that is changing . several ofthe United States , and a few other countries have recently legalized marijuana . This may be due , in part , to changing public attitudes or to the fact that marijuana is increasingly used for medical purposes such as the management of nausea or treating glaucoma . are substances that , as their name suggests , slow down the body physiology and mental processes . Alcohol is the most widely used depressant . Alcohol effects include the reduction of inhibition , meaning that intoxicated people are more likely to act in ways they would otherwise be reluctant to . Alcohol psychological effects are the result of it increasing the neurotransmitter . There are also physical effects , such as loss of balance and coordination , and these stem from the way that alcohol interferes with the coordination of the visual and motor systems ofthe brain . Despite the fact that alcohol is so widely accepted in many cultures it is also associated with a variety . First , alcohol is toxic , meaning that it acts like a poison because it is possible to drink more alcohol than the body can

States of Consciousness 43 effectively remove from the bloodstream . When a person blood alcohol content ( BAC ) reaches to there is a serious risk of death . Second , the lack and physical control associated with alcohol is associated with more risk taking behavior or dangerous behavior such as drunk driving . Finally , alcohol is addictive and heavy drinkers often experience significant interference with their ability to work effectively or in their close relationships . Other common include opiates ( also called narcotics ) which are substances synthesized from the poppy flower . Opiates stimulate endorphins production in the brain and because ofthis they are often used as pain killers by medical professionals . Unfortunately , because opiates such as Oxycontin so reliably produce euphoria they are increasingly used recreational substances . Opiates are highly addictive . Stimulants Stimulants are speed up the body physiological and mental processes . Two commonly used stimulants are in coffee and nicotine , the active drug in cigarettes and other tobacco products . These substances are both legal and relatively inexpensive , leading to their widespread use . Many people are attracted to stimulants because they feel more alert when under the influence of these drugs . As with any drug there are health risks associated with consumption . For example , over intoxication of these types of stimulants can result in anxiety , headaches , and insomnia Similarly , world . Be . I smoking most common One OW many Cups ' you We ay Wage means associated with higher risks of cancer . For instance , among heavy smokers 90 of lung cancer is directly attributable to smoking ( Stewart , 2003 ) There are other stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine ( also known as crystal meth or ice ) that are illegal substances that are commonly used . These substances act by

States of Consciousness 144 blocking of dopamine in the brain . This means that the brain does not naturally clear out the dopamine and that it builds up in the synapse , creating euphoria and alertness . As the effects wear stimulates strong cravings for more ofthe drug . Because ofthis these powerful stimulants are highly addictive . Conclusion When you think about your daily life it is easy to get lulled into the belief that there is one setting for your conscious thought . That is , you likely believe that you hold the same opinions , values , and memories across the day and throughout the week . But you are like a dimmer switch on a light that can be turned from full darkness increasingly on up to full brightness . This switch is consciousness . At your brightest setting you are fully alert and aware at dimmer settings you are day dreaming and sleep or being knocked unconscious represent dimmer settings still . The degree to which you are in high , medium , or low states of conscious awareness affect how susceptible you are to persuasion , how is , and how much detail you can recall . Understanding levels of awareness , then , is at the heart of understanding howwe learn , decide , psychological processes .

States of Consciousness 145 Outside Resources App Visual illusions for the iPad . Book A wonderful book about how little we know about ourselves Wilson , 2004 ) Strangers to ourselves . Cambridge , MA Harvard University Press . Book Another wonderful book about free its absence ?

2002 ) The illusion of conscious will . Cambridge , MA MIT Press . Information on alcoholism , alcohol abuse , and treatment The American Psychological Association has information on getting a good night sleep as well as on sleep disorders The simulator This simulator uses optical illusions to simulate the experience of . Simply follow the instructions in this two minute video . After looking away you may see the world around you in a warped or pulsating way similar to the effects of . The effect is temporary and will disappear in about a minute . The National Sleep Foundation is a with videos on insomnia , sleep training in children , and other topics Video An artist who periodically took and drew Video An interesting video on attention Video Clip on experiences induced using virtual reality .

States of Consciousness 46 Video Clip on the rubber hand illusion , from the science series Horizon . Video Clip showing a patient with , from the documentary Phantoms in the Brain . Video Demonstration of blindness Look steadily at the blue moving pattern . One or more of the yellow spots may disappear Video Howie from American Idol being hypnotized into shaking hands with people ?

Video Imaging the Brain , Reading the Mind A talk by . Video Lucas a stage the therapeutic aspects of hypnosis ?

Video Ted Talk Simon Lewis Do take consciousness for granted Video TED Talk on Dream Research ?

Video The problem An interview with Ned Block Want a quick demonstration of priming ?

Want a quick demonstration of how powerful these effects can be ?

Check out Web A good overview of priming ( Web Definitions of Consciousness States of Consciousness 47 Web Learn more about blindness on Michael Bach website Discussion Questions . If someone were in a coma after an accident , and you wanted to better understand how conscious or aware were , how might you go about it ?

What are some of the factors in daily life that interfere with people ability to get adequate sleep ?

What interferes with your sleep ?

How frequently do you remember your dreams ?

Do you have recurring images or themes in your dreams ?

Why do you think that is ?

Consider times when you fantasize or let your mind wander ?

Describe these times are you more likely to be alone or with others ?

Are there certain activities you engage in that seem particularly prone to daydreaming ?

A number of traditional societies use consciousness altering substances in ceremonies . Why do you think they do this ?

Do you think attitudes toward drug use are changing over time ?

If so , how ?

Why do you think these changes occur ?

Students in high school and college are increasingly using stimulants such as as study aids and performance enhancers . What is your opinion of this trend ?

States of Consciousness 48 Vocabulary Blood Alcohol Content ( BAC ) Blood Alcohol Content ( BAC ) a measure of the percentage of alcohol found in a blood . This measure is typically the standard used to determine the extent to which a person is intoxicated , as in the case of being too impaired to drive a vehicle . Circadian Rhythm Circadian Rhythm The physiological cycle . It is influenced by exposure to sunlight as well as daily schedule and activity . Biologically , it includes changes in body temperature , blood pressure and blood sugar . Consciousness Consciousness the awareness or deliberate perception of a stimulus Cues Cues a stimulus that has a particular significance to the perceiver ( a sight or a sound that has special relevance to the person who saw or heard it ) a class of drugs that slow down the body physiological and mental processes . Dissociation Dissociation the heightened focus on one stimulus or thought such that many other things around you are ignored a disconnect between one awareness oftheir environment and the one object the person is focusing on Euphoria Euphoria an intense feeling of pleasure , excitement or happiness . Flexible Correction Model Flexible Correction Model the ability for people to correct or change their beliefs and evaluations if they believe have been biased ( if someone realizes they only thought their day was great because it was sunny , they may revise their evaluation of the day to account for this influence of the weather ) Hallucinogens Hallucinogens substances that , when ingested , person perceptions , often by creating

States of Consciousness 49 hallucinations that are not real or distorting their perceptions of time . Hypnosis Hypnosis the state person is highly responsive to the suggestions of another this state usually involves a dissociation with one environment and an intense focus on a single stimulus , which is usually accompanied by a sense of relaxation Hypnotherapy Hypnotherapy The use of hypnotic techniques such as relaxation and suggestion to help engineer desirable change such as lower pain or quitting smoking . Implicit Associations Test Implicit Associations Test ( A computer reaction time test that measures a automatic associations with concepts . For instance , the could be used to measure how person makes positive or negative evaluations of members ethnic groups . Jet Lag Jet Lag The state of being fatigued having difficulty adjusting to a new time zone after traveling along distance ( across multiple time zones ) Melatonin Melatonin A hormone associated with increased drowsiness and sleep . Mindfulness Mindfulness a state of heightened focus on the thoughts passing through one head , as well as a more controlled evaluation ofthose thoughts ( do you reject or support the thoughts you having ?

Priming Priming the activation of certain thoughts or feelings that make them easier to think of and act upon Stimulants Stimulants a class that speed up the body physiological and mental processes . Trance States Trance a state of consciousness characterized by the experience of possession , or an acute dissociation between one the current , physical environment surrounding them .

States of Consciousness 50 References Abbot , Stead , White , Barnes , Ernst , 1998 ) Hypnotherapy for smoking cessation . Database of Systematic Reviews , 2015 ) Psychological manipulation , hypnosis , and suggestion . International journal of Cultic Studies , Bargh , Chen , Burrows , 1996 ) Automaticity of social behavior Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action . journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 71 ( 230 . Brown , 2001 ) Sleep habits and patterns of college students A preliminary study . journal ofAmerican College Health , 50 , 1980 ) Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in and Social Psychology , 39 ( 752 . 1978 ) Clinical use of hypnosis for attenuation of burn depth . Hypnosis at its Papers from the Seventh International Congress of Hypnosis and Psychosomatic Medicine . New York Plenum Press . Freud , 2001 ) The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud The Interpretation ( First Part ) Vol . Random House . Gilbert , 1991 ) The trouble of thinking activation and application of stereotypic beliefs . journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 60 ( 509 . 2000 ) Using the Implicit Association Test to measure esteem and and Social Psychology , 79 , Schwartz , 1998 ) Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition The Implicit Association Test . journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 , 2003 ) Hypnosis and memory . Ed . Learning and memory , ed . Farmington Hills , Mi . Macmillan Reference Kirsch , Lynn , 995 ) Altered state of hypnosis Changes in the theoretical landscape . American Psychologist , 50 ( 10 ) 846 . Lynn , and Kirsch I . 2006 ) Essentials of clinical hypnosis . Washington , American Psychological Association . Lynn , 1990 ) Hypnotic involuntariness A analysis . Psychological Review , 97 , 2002 ) Harvesting implicit group attitudes and

States of Consciousness 51 beliefs from a demonstration website . Group Dynamics , Patterson , Everett , Burns , Marvin , A . 1992 ) Hypnosis for the treatment of burn of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 60 , Kumar , Moon , 2010 ) Suggestibility , expectancy , trance state effects , and hypnotic depth I . Implications for understanding hypnotism . of Clinical Hypnosis , 52 ( Petty , 1986 ) The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion . In Berkowitz ( Ed . Advances in Experimental Social Psychology ( Vol . 19 , New York Academic Press . Stewart , 2003 ) World cancer report . World Health Organization . Cummings , 1992 ) Hypnosis or cognitive behavioral training forthe reduction of pain and nausea during cancer treatment A controlled clinical trial . Pain , 48 , Petty , 1997 ) The flexible correction model The role of naive theories of bias in bias correction . Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , 29 , II , 2003 ) Could empathy be a predictor of hypnotic ability ?

International journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis , 51 ( Williams , Bargh , A . 2008 ) Experiencing physical warmth promotes interpersonal warmth . Science , 322 ( 5901 ) 1994 ) Unconscious anxiety phobic responses to masked stimuli . journal of Abnormal Psychology , 103 ( 231 .