General Psychology An Introduction Chapter 12 Personality

Chapter 12 Personality 20 Personality Traits Edward Richard Lucas Personality traits reflect people characteristic patterns , feelings , and behaviors . Personality traits imply consistency and who scores high on a specific trait like Extraversion is expected to be sociable in different situations and over time . Thus , trait psychology rests on the idea that people differ from one another in terms they stand on a set of basic trait dimensions that persist over time and across situations . The most widely used system of traits is called the Model . This system includes five broad traits that can be remembered with the acronym OCEAN Openness , Conscientiousness , Extraversion , Agreeableness , and Neuroticism . Each of the major traits from the Big Five can be divided into facets to give a more analysis personality . In addition , some trait theorists argue that there are other traits that can not be completely captured by the Model . Critics of the trait concept argue that people do not act consistently from one situation to the next and that people are very influenced by situational forces . Thus , one in the field concerns the relative power of people traits situations in which they find themselves as of their behavior . Learning Objectives List and describe the Big Five ( OCEAN ) personality traits that comprise the Model of personality . Describe how the facet approach extends broad personality traits . Explain a critique of the concept . Describe in what ways personality traits may be manifested in everyday behavior . Describe each ofthe Big Five personality traits , and the low and high end ofthe dimension . Give examples of each of the Big Five personality traits , including both a low and high example .

Personality Traits 345 Describe how traits and social learning combine to predict your social activities . Describe your theory of how personality traits get refined by social learning . Introduction When we observe people around us , one of the first things that strikes us is how different people are from one another . Some people are very talkative while others are very quiet . Some are active whereas others are couch potatoes . Some worry a lot , others almost never seem anxious . Each time we use one of these words , words like talkative , active , or to describe those around us , we are talking about a person characteristic ways that people differ from one another . Personality psychologists try to describe and understand these differences . Although there are many ways to think about the personalities that people have , Gordon and other claimed that we can best understand the differences between individuals by understanding their personality traits . Personality traits reflect basic dimensions on which people differ ( According to trait psychologists , there are a limited number of these dimensions ( dimensions like Extraversion , Conscientiousness , or Agreeableness ) and each individual falls somewhere on each dimension , meaning that they could be low , medium , or high on any specific trait . An important feature of personality traits is that they reflect continuous rather than distinct personality types . This means that when personality psychologists talk about and , they are not really talking about two distinct types of Personality is made up of traits identifiable and relatively stable characteristics that set each individual person apart from others . laura dye

Personality Traits 346 people who are completely and qualitatively different from one another . Instead , they are talkingabout peoplewho score relatively high continuous distribution . In fact , when personality psychologists measure traits like Extraversion , they typically find that most people score somewhere in the middle , with smaller numbers showing more extreme levels . The figure below shows the distribution of Extraversion scores from a survey of thousands of people . As you can see , most people report being moderately , but not extremely , with fewer people reporting very high or very low scores . There are three criteria that are characterize personality traits ( consistency , stability , and ( individual differences . have a personality trait , individuals must be somewhat consistent across situations in their behaviors related to the trait . For example , if they are talkative at home , they tend also to be talkative . Number of People at Each Level . Individuals with a trait are also somewhat stable over time in Low Medium ' High . Level of Ext , behaviors related to the trait . If they are talkative , for example , at age 30 , Figure . Distribution of Extraversion Scores in a Sample Higher bars they will also tend to be talkative at mean that more people have scores of that level . This figure shows that most people score towards the middle of the extraversion scale , with age fewer people who are highly or highly introverted . people one another on behaviors related to the trait . Using speech is not a personality trait and neither is walking on two all individuals do these activities , and there are almost no individual differences . But people differ on how frequently they talk and how active they are , and thus personality traits such as Talkativeness and Activity Level do exist . A challenge of the trait approach was to discover the major traits on which all people differ . Scientists for many decades generated hundreds of new traits , so that it was soon difficult to keep track and make sense of them . For instance , one psychologist might focus on individual differences in friendliness , whereas another might focus on the highly related concept of sociability . Scientists began seeking ways to reduce the number in some systematic

Personality Traits 347 way and to discover the basic traits that describe most of the differences between people . The way that Gordon and his colleague Henry approached this was to search the dictionary for all of personality ( Their approach was guided by the lexical hypothesis , which states that all important personality characteristics should be reflected in the language that we use to describe other people . Therefore , if we want to understand the fundamental ways in which people differ from one another , we can turn to the words that people use to describe one another . So if we want to know what words people use to describe one another , where should we look ?

and looked in the most obvious dictionary . Specifically , they took all the personality that they could find in the dictionary ( they started with almost words but quickly reduced that list to a more manageable number ) and then used statistical techniques to determine which words went together . In other words , if everyone who said that they were friendly also said that they were then this might mean that personality psychologists would only need a single trait to capture individual differences in these characteristics . Statistical techniques were used to determine whether a small number of dimensions might underlie all of the thousands of words we use to describe people . The Model of Personality Research that used the lexical approach showed that many of the personality found in the dictionary do indeed overlap . In other words , many of the words that we use to describe people are synonyms . Thus , if we want to know what a person is like , we do not necessarily need to ask how sociable they are , how friendly they are , and how gregarious they are . Instead , because sociable people tend to be friendly and gregarious , we can summarize this personality dimension with a single term . Someone who is sociable , friendly , and gregarious would typically be described as an Once we know she is an extravert , we can assume that she is sociable , friendly , and gregarious . Statistical methods ( specifically , a technique called factor analysis ) helped to determine whether a small number underlie the diversity that people like and identified . The most widely accepted system to emerge from this approach was The Big Five or Model ( Goldberg , 1990 John , 1992 Costa , these five is with the acronym OCEAN ( is for Openness is for Conscientiousness is for Extraversion A is for Agreeableness is for Neuroticism ) Figure provides descriptions of people who would score high and low on each of these traits .

Personality Traits 348 Big Definition The tendency to appreciate new art , ideas , values , feelings , and behaviors . Openness The tendency to be careful , for appointments , to follow rules , and to be ( hardworking . The tendency to be talkative , sociable , and to enjoy others the tendency to have a Extraversion dominant style . The to agree and go along with others rather than to assert one own opinions an choices . The tendency to frequently experience negative emotions such as anger , worry , and sadness , as well as being sensitive . Figure . Descriptions of the Big Five Personality Traits Scores on the Big Five traits are mostly independent . That means that a person standing on one trait tells very little about their standing on the other traits of the Big Five . For example , a person can be extremely high in Extraversion and be either high or low on Neuroticism . Similarly , a person can be and be either high or Conscientiousness . Thus , in the Model , you need five scores to describe most of an individuals personality . In the Appendix to this module , we present a short scale to assess the Model of personality ( You can take this test to see where you stand in terms of your Big Five scores . has also created a helpful website that has personality scales that can be used and taken by the general public After seeing your scores , you can judge for yourself whether you think such tests are valid . Traits are important and interesting because they describe stable patterns of behavior that persist for long periods of time ( Roberts , Shiner , 2005 ) importantly , these stable in college . lfyou were asked to guess what factors predict good grades in college , you might guess something like intelligence . This guess would be correct , but we know much more about who is likely to do well . Specifically , personality researchers have also found the personality traits like Conscientiousness play an important role in college and beyond , probably because highly conscientious individuals study hard , get their work done on time , and are less distracted by nonessential activities that take time away from school work . In addition , highly

Personality Traits 349 Bi an Example Example Behavior for LOW Scorers HIGH Scorers Prefers not to be exposed to alternative En seeing with new types moral systems narrow interests of an bod piercing curious Openness not analytical imaginative Prefers action Never late for a date organized i i , unreliable , hedonistic , punctual , Preferring a quiet evening reading to a Being the life of the par active Extraversion loud party sober aloof unenthusiastic optimistic a Quickly and Agrees with political own rig opinions goo uncooperative rude gullible helpful forgiving Not getting irritated by small Constantly worrying about little things , annoyances calm , unemotional insecure feeling hardy secure inadequate Figure . Example behaviors for those scoring low and high for the big Straits conscientious people are often healthier than people low in conscientiousness because they are more likely to maintain healthy diets , to exercise , and to follow basic safety procedures like wearing seat belts or bicycle helmets . Over the long term , this consistent pattern of behaviors can add up to meaningful differences in health and longevity . Thus , personality traits are notjust a useful way to describe people you know they actually help psychologists predict how good a worker someone will be , how long he or she will live , and the types ofjobs and activities the person will enjoy . Thus , there is growing interest in personality psychology among psychologists who work in applied settings , such as health psychology or organizational psychology . Facets of Traits ( So how does it feel to be told that your entire personality can be summarized with scores on just five personality traits ?

Do you think these five scores capture the complexity of your own and others characteristic patterns of thoughts , feelings , and behaviors ?

Most people would probably say no , pointing to some exception in their behavior that goes against the general pattern that others might see . For instance , you may know people who are warm and friendly and find it easy to talk with strangers at a party yet are terrified if they have to perform in front of others or speak to large groups of people . The fact that there are different ways of being or conscientious shows that there is value in considering units of personality that are more specific than the Big Five traits . These more specific ,

Personality Traits units of personality are often called facets . Trait Facets of Trait Fantasy prone Open to feelings Open to diverse behaviors Open to new and different ideas Open to various values and beliefs Openness Competent Orderly Dutiful Achievement oriented Deliberate ( Gregarious ( sociable ) Warm Assertive Active Positive emotionality Trusting Straightforward Altruistic Compliant Modest Agreeableness Anxious Angry Depressed Impulsive Vulnerable Neuroticism Figure . Facets of Traits 350 To give you a sense of what these narrow units are like , Figure shows facets for each of the Big Five traits . It is important to note that although personality researchers generally agree about the value of the Big Five traits as a way to summarize one personality , there is no widely accepted list be here , based on work by researchers Paul Costa , thus one possible list among many . It should , however , give you an idea of some of the facets making up each of the Model . Facets can be useful because they provide more specific descriptions ofwhat a person is like . For instance , ifwe take who loves parties but hates public speaking , we might saythat this person scores high on the gregariousness and warmth facets of extraversion , while scoring lower on facets such as assertiveness or seeking . This precise profile of facet scores not only provides a better description , it allow usto better predict friend ( for example , jobs that require public speaking versus jobs that involve interactions with customers within a broad , global trait like extraversion tend to go together ( those who are gregarious are often but not always assertive ) the broad trait often provides a useful summary of what a person is like . But when we reallywant to know a person , facet scores add to our knowledge in important ways . Other Traits Beyond the Model

Personality Traits 351 Despite the popularity of the Model , it is certainly not the only model that exists . Some suggest that there are more than five major traits , or perhaps even fewer . For example , in one of the first comprehensive models to be proposed , Hans suggested that Extraversion and Neuroticism are most important . believed that by combining people standing on these two major traits , we could account for many ofthe differences in personality that we see in people ( So for instance , a neurotic introvert would be shy and nervous , while a stable introvert might avoid social situations and prefer solitary activities , but he may do so with a calm , steady attitude and little anxiety or emotion . Interestingly , attempted to two major dimensions to underlying differences in people biology . For instance , he suggested that experienced too much sensory stimulation and arousal , which made them want to seek out quiet settings and less stimulating environments . More , jeffrey Gray suggested that these two broad traits are related to fundamental reward and avoidance systems in the might be motivated to seek reward and thus exhibit assertive , behavior , whereas people high in neuroticism might be motivated to avoid punishment and thus may experience anxiety as a result of their heightened awareness of the threats in the world around them ( Gray , have led to a burgeoning interest in identifying the physiological underpinnings of the individual differences that we observe . Another revision ofthe Big Five is the model ( This model is similar to the Big Five , but it posits slightly different versions of some of the traits , and its proponents argue that one important class of individual differences was omitted from the Model . The adds as a sixth dimension of personality . People high in this trait are sincere , fair , and modest , whereas those low in the trait are manipulative , narcissistic , and . Thus , trait theorists are agreed that personality traits are important in understanding behavior , but there are still debates on the exact number and composition of the traits that are most important . There are other important traits that are not included in comprehensive models like the Big Five . Although the five factors capture much that is important about personality , researchers have suggested other traits that capture interesting aspects ofour behavior . In Figure below we present just a few , out of hundreds , of the other traits that have been studied by . Not all of the above traits are currently popular with scientists , yet each of them has experienced popularity in the past . Although the Model has been the target of more rigorous research than some of the traits above , these additional personality characteristics give a good idea of the wide range of behaviors and attitudes that traits can

Personality Traits Trait Need font Needful Cognition Authoritarianism Narcissism 352 tion Named after the famous political philosopher , this trait refers to individuals who manipulate the behavior of others , often through duplicity . are often interested in money and power , and pragmatically use others in this quest . Those high in need for achievement want to accomplish a lot and set high standards of excellence for themselves . They are able to work persistently and hard for distant goals . David argued that economic growth depends in part on citizens with high need for achievement . People high in need for cognition it rewarding to understand things , and are willing to use considerable cognitive effort in this quest . Such individuals enjoy learning , and the process of trying to understand new things . believe in strict social hierarchies , in which they are totally obedient to those above them , and expect complete obedience from their subordinates . Rigid in adherence to rules , the authoritarian personality is very uncomfortable with uncertainty . The narcissistic personality has that is so strong that it results in high levels of vanity , conceit , and . The narcissistic individual often has problems feeling empathetic toward others and grateful to others . The tendency to evaluate oneself positively . does not imply that one believes that he or she is better than others , only that he or she is a person . The tendency to expect positive outcomes in the future . People who are optimistic expect good things to happen , and indeed they often have more positive outcomes , perhaps because they work harder to achieve them . The inability to recognize and label emotions in oneself . The individual also has a time recognizing emotions in others , and often has in relationships . Figure . Other Traits COVE Those Included in the Big Five The Debate and Alternatives to the Trait Perspective The ideas described in this module should probably seem familiar , obvious to you . When asked to think about what our friends , enemies , family members , and colleagues are like , some ofthe first things that come to mind are their personality characteristics . We might think

Personality Traits 353 teacher was , how irresponsible and careless our brother is , or how demanding and insulting our first boss was . Each of these reflects a personality trait , and most of us generally think that the descriptions that we use for individuals accurately reflect their characteristic pattern of thoughts , feelings , and behaviors , or in other The way people behave is only , in part , a product of their natural Words their personality , personality . Situations also influence how a person behaves . But what if this idea were wrong ?

What personality traits were an illusion and people are not consistent from one situation to the next ?

This was a psychology in the late when Walter published a book called Personality and Assessment ( In this book , suggested that if one looks closely at people behavior across many , the really . In , who cheat on tests at school may steadfastly follow all rules when playing games and may never tell a lie to their parents . In other words , he suggested , there may not be any general trait of honesty that links these seemingly related behaviors . Furthermore , suggested that observers may believe that broad personality traits like honesty exist , when in fact , this belief is an illusion . The debate that followed the publication of book was called the debate because it pitted the power of personality against the power of situational factors as of the behavior that people exhibit . Because of the findings that emphasized , many psychologists focused on an alternative to the trait perspective . Instead of studying broad , descriptions , like the trait terms we described so far , thought that psychologists should focus on people distinctive reactions to specific situations . For instance , although there may not be a broad and general trait of honesty , some children may be especially likely to cheat on a test when the risk of being caught is low and the rewards for cheating are high . Others might be motivated by the sense of risk involved in cheating and may do so even when the rewards are not very high . Thus , the behavior itself results from the child unique evaluation of the risks and rewards present at that moment , alongwith her evaluation and values . Because ofthis , the same child might act very differently in different situations . Thus , thought that specific behaviors were driven by the interaction between very specific , psychologically meaningful features of the situation in which people found themselves , the

Personality Traits 354 person unique way of perceiving that situation , and his or her abilities for dealing with it . and others argued that it was these processes that underlie reactions to specific situations that provide some consistency when situational features are the same . If so , then studying these broad traits might be more fruitful than cataloging and measuring narrow , traits like Extraversion or Neuroticism . In the years after the publication of ( book , debates raged about whether personality truly exists , and if so , how it should be studied . And , as is often the case , it turns out that a more moderate middle ground than what the proposed could be reached . It is certainly true , as pointed out , that a person behavior in one specific situation is nota good person will behave in . Someone who is extremely talkative at one specific party may sometimes be reticent to speak up during class and may even act like a wallflower at a different party . But this does not mean that personality does not exist , nor does it mean that people behavior is completely determined by situational factors . Indeed , research conducted after the debate shows that on average , the effect of the situation is about as large as that of personality traits . However , it is also true that if psychologists assess a broad range of behaviors across many different situations , there are general tendencies that emerge . Personality traits give an indication about how people will act on average , but frequently they are not so good at predicting how a person will act in a specific situation at a certain moment in time . Thus , to best capture broad traits , one must assess aggregate behaviors , averaged overtime and across many different types . Most modern personality researchers agree that there is a place for broad and forthe narrower units such as those studied by Walter . Appendix The Scale ( Instructions Below are phrases describing people behaviors . Please use the rating scale below to describe how accurately each statement describes you . Describe yourself as you generally are now , not as you wish to be in the future . Describe yourself as you honestly see yourself , in relation to other people you know of the same sex as you are , and roughly your same age . Please read each statement carefully , and put a number from to next to it to describe how accurately the statement describes you .

Personality Traits 355 Very inaccurate Moderately inaccurate Neither inaccurate nor accurate Moderately accurate Very accurate TAm the life ofthe party ( Sympathize with others feelings ( A ) Get chores done right away ( Have frequent mood swings ( Have a vivid imagination ( talk a lot ( Am not interested in other people problems ( A ) Often forget to put things back in their proper place ( Am relaxed most of the time ( 10 . TAm not interested in abstract ideas ( 11 . Talk to a lot of different people at parties ( 12 . Feel others emotions ( A ) 13 . Like order ( 14 . Get upset easily ( 15 . Have difficulty understanding abstract ideas ( 16 . Keep in the background ( 17 . TAm not really interested in others ( A ) 18 . Make a mess of things ( 19 . Seldom feel blue ( 20 . Do not have a good imagination ( Scoring The first thing you must do is to reverse the items that are worded in the opposite

Personality Traits 356 direction . In order to do this , subtract the number you put for that item from . So if you put a , for instance , it will become a . Cross out the score you put when you took the scale , and put the new number in representing your score subtracted from the number . Items to be reversed in this way , 10 , Next , you need to add up the scores for each ofthe five OCEAN scales ( including the reversed numbers where relevant ) Each OCEAN score will be the sum of four items . Place the sum next to each scale below . Openness Add items , 10 , Conscientiousness Add items , Extraversion Add items , 11 , 16 Agreeableness Add items , 12 , 17 Neuroticism Add items , 19 Compare your scores to the norms below to see where you stand on each scale . If you are low on a trait , it means you are the opposite ofthe trait label . For example , low on Extraversion is Introversion , low on Openness is Conventional , and low on Agreeableness is Assertive . Extremely High , Very High , High , Neither high nor low in the middle , Low , Very low , Extremely low

Personality Traits 357 Outside Resources Web International Personality Item Pool Web John Johnson personality scales Web Personality trait systems compared Web Sam Gosling website Discussion Questions . Consider different combinations ofthe Big Five , such as ( Low ) High ) Low ) A ( High ) and ( Low ) What would this person be like ?

Do you know anyone who is like this ?

Can you select politicians , movie stars , and people and rate them on the Big Five ?

How do you think learning and inherited personality traits get combined in adult personality ?

Can you think of instances where people do not act their personality traits are not good of their behavior ?

Has your personality changed over time , and in what ways ?

Can you think ofa personality trait not mentioned in this module that describes how people differ from one another ?

When do extremes in personality traits become harmful , and when are they unusual but productive of good outcomes ?

Personality Traits 358 Vocabulary Agreeableness A personality trait that reflects a person tendency to be compassionate , cooperative , warm , and caring to others . People low in agreeableness tend to be rude , hostile , and to pursue their own interests over those of others . Conscientiousness A personality trait that reflects a person tendency to be careful , organized , hardworking , and to follow rules . Continuous Characteristics can go from low to high , with all different intermediate values possible . One does not simply have the trait or not have it , but can possess varying amounts of it . Extraversion A personality trait that reflects a person tendency to be sociable , outgoing , active , and assertive . Facets Broad personality traits can be broken down into narrower facets or aspects of the trait . For example , extraversion has several facets , such as sociability , dominance , and so forth . Factor analysis A statistical technique for grouping similar things together according to how highly they are associated . Model ( also called the Big Five ) The Model is a widely accepted model of personality traits . Advocates ofthe model believe that much ofthe variability in people thoughts , feelings , and behaviors can be summarized with five broad traits . These five traits are Openness , Conscientiousness , Extraversion , Agreeableness , and Neuroticism . model The model is an alternative to the Model . The model includes six traits , five of which are variants of the traits included in the Big Five ( Emotionality , Extraversion , Agreeableness A , Conscientiousness , and Openness ) The sixth

Personality Traits 359 factor , is unique to this model . Independent Two characteristics or traits are separate from one a person can be high on one and low on the other , or . Some correlated traits are relatively independent in that although there is a tendency for a person high on one to also be high on the other , this is not always the case . Lexical hypothesis The lexical hypothesis is the idea that the most important differences between people will be encoded in the language that we use to describe people . Therefore , ifwe want to know which personality traits are most important , we can look to the language that people use to describe themselves and others . Neuroticism A personality trait that reflects the tendency to be sensitive and the tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety , fear , sadness , and anger . Openness to Experience A personality trait that reflects a person tendency to seek out and to appreciate new things , including thoughts , feelings , values , and experiences . Personality Enduring predispositions that characterize a person , such as styles of thought , feelings and behavior . Personality traits Enduring dispositions in behavior that show differences across individuals , and which tend to characterize the person across varying types of situations . debate The debate is a historical debate about the relative power of personality traits as compared to situational influences on behavior . The critique , which started the debate , suggested that people overestimate the extent to which personality traits are consistent across situations .

Personality Traits 360 References , 1936 ) Trait names A study . Psychological , 47 , 211 . Ashton , Lee , 2007 ) Empirical , theoretical , and practical advantages of the model of personality structure . Personality and Social Psychological Review , 11 , Roberts , Shiner , 2005 ) Personality development Stability and change . Annual Reviews of Psychology , 56 , Oswald , Lucas , 2006 ) The scales measures of the Big Five factors of personality . Psychological Assessment , 18 , 1981 ) A York Springer . Goldberg , 990 ) An alternative description The Big Five personality traits . journal and Social Psychology , 59 , Gray , A . 1981 ) A critique of theory of personality . In ( Ed . A Model for Personality ( New York Springer . Gray , A . 2000 ) The neuropsychology of anxiety An enquiry into the functions of the system ( second edition ) Oxford University Press . Matthews , Deary , I . 2003 ) Personality traits . Cambridge , UK Cambridge University Press . Costa , 1987 ) Validation of the model of personality across instruments and and Social Psychology , 52 , 81 . John , 992 ) An introduction to the model and its applications . journal , 60 , 1968 ) Personality and assessment . New York John Wiley . Ashton , 2001 ) Big five factors and facets and the prediction of behavior . journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 81 , Roberts , Shiner , 2007 ) The power of personality The comparative validity of personality traits , socioeconomic status , and cognitive ability for predicting important life outcomes . Perspectives on Psychological Science ,

21 The Psychodynamic Perspective Robert Originating in the work of Sigmund Freud , the psychodynamic perspective emphasizes unconscious psychological processes ( for example , wishes and fears of which we not fully aware ) and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality . The psychodynamic perspective has evolved considerably since Freud time , and now includes innovative new approaches such as object relations theory and . Some psychodynamic concepts have held up well to empirical scrutiny while others have not , and aspects of the theory remain controversial , but the psychodynamic perspective continues to influence many different areas of contemporary psychology . Learning Objectives Describe the major models of personality within the psychodynamic perspective . Define the concept of ego defense , and give examples of commonly used ego defenses . Identify psychodynamic concepts that have been supported by empirical research . Discuss current trends in psychodynamic theory . Introduction Have you ever done something that did make sense ?

Perhaps you waited until the last minute to begin studying for an exam , even though you knew that delaying so long would ensure that you got a poor grade . Or maybe you spotted a person you liked across the room about whom you had romantic instead of approaching that person

The Psychodynamic Perspective 362 you headed the otherway ( ashamed about it afterward ) If you ever done something that did seem to make who among us perspective on personality might be useful foryou . It can help you understand why you chose not to study for that test , or why you ran the other way when the person of your dreams entered the room . According to psychodynamic theory , a lot ofour behaviors and preferences of adulthood are shaped by the experiences in our childhood . Psychodynamic theory ( sometimes called psychoanalytic theory ) explains personality in terms of unconscious psychological processes ( for example , wishes and fears ofwhich we not fully aware ) and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality . Psychodynamic theory is most closely associated with the work Freud , and with psychoanalysis , a type of psychotherapy that attempts to explore the unconscious thoughts and emotions so that the person is better able to understand or herself . Freud work has been extremely influential , its impact extending far beyond psychology ( several years ago Time magazine selected Freud as one ofthe most important thinkers ofthe century ) Freud work has been not only influential , but quite controversial as well . As you might imagine , when Freud suggested in 1900 that much of our behavior is determined by psychological forces of which we largely we literally do know going on in our own were ( to put it mildly ) displeased ( When he suggested in 1905 that we humans have strong sexual feelings from a very early age , and that some of these sexual feelings are directed toward our parents , people were more than were outraged ( Freud , Few theories in psychology have evoked such strong reactions from other professionals and members of the public . Controversy notwithstanding , no competent psychologist , or student of psychology , can ignore . psychological science and practice , and continues to play an important role in a wide variety of disciplines within and outside psychology ( for example , developmental psychology , social psychology , sociology , and neuroscience see , 2005 , 2006 Turnbull , 2011 ) This module reviews the psychodynamic perspective on personality . We begin with a brief discussion of the core

The Psychodynamic Perspective 363 assumptions of psychodynamic theory , followed by an overview ofthe evolution ofthe theory from Freud time to today . We then discuss the place of psychodynamic theory within contemporary psychology , and look toward the future as well . Core Assumptions of the Psychodynamic Perspective The core assumptions of psychodynamic theory are surprisingly simple . Moreover , these assumptions are unique to the psychodynamic framework No other theories of personality accept these three ideas in their purest form . Assumption Primacy of the Unconscious Psychodynamic theorists contend that the majority of psychological processes take place outside conscious awareness . In psychoanalytic terms , the activities of the mind ( or psyche ) are presumed to be largely unconscious . Research confirms this basic premise of psychoanalysis Many of our mental , motives , feelings , and the are largely inaccessible to consciousness ( Bargh , 2008 2010 Wilson , Assumption Critical Importance of Early Experiences Psychodynamic theory is not alone in early childhood events playa role in shaping personality , but the theory is unique in the degree to which it emphasizes these events as of personality development and dynamics . According to the psychodynamic model , early those occurring during the first weeks or months of life in motion personality processes that affect us years , even decades , later ( Levy , range ( for example , losing a parent or sibling at a very early age ) Assumption Psychic Causality The third core assumption of psychodynamic theory is that nothing in mental life happens by there is no such thing as a random thought , feeling , motive , or behavior . This has come to be known as the principle of psychic causality , and though few psychologists accept the principle of psychic causality precisely as psychoanalysts conceive it , most theorists and researchers agree that thoughts , motives , emotional responses , and expressed behaviors do not arise randomly , but always stem from some combination biological and

The Psychodynamic Perspective 364 psychological processes ( Elliott , The Evolution of Psychodynamic Theory Given Freud background in neurology , itis the incarnation of psychoanalytic theory was primarily biological Freud set out to explain Our every thought and behavior something as seemingly random as which hiking trail to take or which rock to sit from biological or psychological phenomena in terms that could be linked to understood in his day . Because Freud work in this area evolved over more than 50 years psychological influences . Trekking ( he began in 1885 , and continued until he died in 1939 ) there were numerous revisions along the way . Thus , it is most accurate to think of psychodynamic theory as a set of interrelated models that complement and build upon each other . Three are particularly important the topographic model , the psychosexual stage model , and the structural model . The Topographic Model In his 1900 book , The Interpretation , Freud introduced his topographic model of the mind , which contended that the mind could be divided into three regions conscious , preconscious , and unconscious . The conscious part ofthe mind holds information focusing on at this you thinking and feeling right now . The preconscious contains material that is capable of becoming conscious but is not conscious at the moment because your attention is not being directed toward it . You can move material from the preconscious into consciousness simply by focusing your attention on it . Consider , for example , what you had for dinner last night . A moment ago that information was preconscious now it conscious , because you pulled it up into consciousness . Notto worry , andyou can to . The most controversial part of the topographic producing material ( for example , sexual impulses , aggressive urges ) that are deliberately repressed ( held outside awareness as a form because they make you uncomfortable ) The terms conscious , preconscious , and unconscious continue to be used

The Psychodynamic Perspective 365 today in psychology , and research has provided support for thinking regarding conscious and preconscious processing ( The existence of the unconscious remains controversial , with some researchers arguing that evidence for it is compelling and others contending that unconscious processing can be accounted for without positing the existence of a Freudian repository of repressed wishes and troubling urges and impulses ( Eagle , 2011 Barrett , 2006 ) Dreams play an important role in psychodynamic , as they are often considered the central route through which the unconscious expresses itself to the conscious mind . The Psychosexual Stage Model Freud remained devoted to the topographic model , but by 1905 he had outlined the key elements ofhis psychosexual stage model , which argued that early in life we progress through a sequence of developmental stages , each with its own unique challenge and its own mode of sexual gratification . Freud psychosexual , anal , Oedipal , latency , and genital even to psychologists . Frustration or overgratification during a was hypothesized to result in fixation at that stage , and to the development of an oral , anal , or Oedipal personality style ( 2005 , 2006 ) and the three personality styles that result . Note with the developmental challenges that the child confronts during each fixation is hypothesized to result in a dependent personality , whereas anal fixation results in a lifelong preoccupation with control . Oedipal fixation leads to an aggressive , competitive personality orientation . The Structural Model Ultimately , Freud recognized that the topographic model was helpful in understanding how people process and store information , but not all that useful in explaining other important psychological phenomena ( for example , why certain people develop psychological disorders

The Psychodynamic Perspective 366 and others do not ) To extend his theory , Freud developed a complementary framework to account for normal and abnormal personality structural posits the existence of three interacting mental structures called the id , ego , and superego . The id is the seat and instincts , whereas the ego represents the logical , part of the mind , and the superego is basically your moral guidelines , rules , and behavior . You through the culture in which you were raised . According to the structural model , our personality reflects the interplay ofthese three psychic structures , which differ across individuals in relative power and influence . When the id and instincts rule , the result is an impulsive personality style . When the superego is strongest , moral prohibitions reign supreme , and a restrained , personality ensues . When the ego is dominant , a more balanced set of personality traits develop ( Eagle , 2011 , 2009 ) The Ego and Its Defenses In addition to being the logical , rational , part of the mind , the ego serves another important function It helps us manage anxiety through the use of ego defenses . Ego defenses are basically mental strategies that we use automatically and unconsciously when we feel threatened ( They help us navigate upsetting events , but there a cost as well All ego defenses involve some distortion of reality . For example , repression ( the most basic ego defense , according to Freud ) involves removing from consciousness upsetting thoughts and feelings , and moving those thoughts and feelings to the unconscious . When you read about a person who blocked out upsetting memories of child abuse , that an example of repression . Another ego defense is denial . In denial ( unlike repression ) we are aware that a particular event occurred , but we do allow ourselves to see the implications of that event . When you hear a person with a substance abuse problem say I though people complain about my drinking I never miss a day ofwork , that person is using denial . Table lists some common ego defenses in psychodynamic theory , along with a definition and example . Psychodynamic Theories Where Are We Now ?

The topographic model , psychosexual stage model , and structural model continue to influence contemporary psychology , but it is important to keep in mind that psychodynamic theory is never static , ever changing and evolving in response to new ideas and findings . In

The Psychodynamic Perspective 367 sections we discussion four current trends in the psychodynamic perspective object relations theory , the empirical testing of psychodynamic concepts , psychoanalysis and culture , and the opportunities and challenges of neuroscience . Object Relations Theory and the Growth of the Psychodynamic Perspective In recent years a number of new psychodynamic have emerged to explain personality development and dynamics . The most important of these is object relations theory . In psychoanalytic language , the term object refers to a person , so object relations theory is really something more like interpersonal relations theory . Object relations theory contends We first learn how to interact with people as children . And depending on those experiences , it will guide our expectations for how future that tY can be Understood relationship interactions will go . as reflecting the mental images of significant figures ( especially the parents ) that we form early in life in response to interactions taking place within the family ( These mental images ( sometimes called ) serve as templates for later interpersonal like relationship blueprints or So if you internalized positive early in life ( for example , a mental image of mom or dad as warm and accepting ) that what you expect to occur in later relationships as well . lfyou internalized a mental image of mom or dad as harsh , you might instead become a person , and feel that you can never live up to other standards . or your own ( Object relations theory has increased many psychologists interest in studying psychodynamic ideas and concepts , in part because it represents a natural bridge between the psychodynamic perspective and research in of psychology . For example , developmental and social psychologists also believe that mental representations people play an important role in shaping our behavior . In developmental psychology you might read about this in the context ( which argues that significant people are key to understanding human behavior , 2002 ) In social psychology , mental

The Psychodynamic Perspective 368 representations of significant figures play an important role in social cognition ( thoughts and feelings regarding other people Bargh , 2008 Robinson Gordon , 2011 ) Empirical Research on Psychodynamic Theories Empirical research assessing psychodynamic concepts has produced mixed results , with some concepts receiving good empirical support , and others not faring as well . For example , the notion that we express strong sexual feelings from a very early age , as the psychosexual stage model suggests , has not held up to empirical scrutiny . On the other hand , the idea that there are dependent , and competitive personality idea also derived from the psychosexual stage seem useful . Many ideas from the psychodynamic perspective have been studied empirically . and Barrett ( 2006 ) reviewed much of this research other useful reviews are provided by hypotheses that have received strong empirical support . Unconscious processes our behavior as the psychodynamic perspective predicts . We perceive and process much more information than we realize , and much of our behavior is shaped by feelings and motives ofwhich we are , at best , only partially aware ( We all use ego defenses and they help determine our psychological adjustment and physical health . People really do differ in the degree that they rely on different ego much so that researchers now study each person defense style ( the unique constellation of defenses that we use ) It turns out that certain defenses are more adaptive than others Rationalization and sublimation are healthier ( psychologically speaking ) than repression and reaction formation ( Cramer , 2006 ) Denial is , quite literally , bad foryour health , because Mental representations of self and others do indeed serve as blueprints for later relationships . Dozens have studies have shown that mental images ofour parents , and other significant figures , really do shape our expectations for later friendships and romantic relationships . The idea that you choose a romantic partner who resembles mom or dad is a myth , but it true that you expect to be treated by others as you were treated by your parents early in life ( 2007 , 1997 )

The Psychodynamic Perspective 369 Psychoanalysis and Culture One of Freud lifelong goals was to use psychoanalytic principles to understand culture and improve relations ( he actually exchanged several letters with Albert Einstein prior to World War II , in which they discussed this issue ) During the past several decades , as society has become increasingly multicultural , this effort has taken on new importance psychoanalysts have been active in If you were to describe yourself , would you focus on your personal incorporating ideas and findings preferences and hobbies ?

Or would you focus on your relationships and regarding into ties with others ?

Rose Physical Therapy Group their research and Work For example , studies have shown that individuals raised in individualistic , cultures ( for example , the United States , Great Britain ) tend to define themselves primarily in terms of personal attributes ( like attitudes and interests ) whereas individuals raised in more sociocentric , interdependent cultures ( for example , Japan , India ) are more likely to describe themselves in terms of interpersonal relations and connections with others ( Coon , 2002 ) The Opportunities and Challenges of Neuroscience Fifteen years ago , Nobel Laureate Eric ( articulated a vision for an empirically oriented psychodynamic perspective firmly embedded within the principles and findings of neuroscience . vision ultimately led to the development of , an integration of psychodynamic and neuropsychological concepts that has enhanced researchers understanding of numerous aspects of human behavior and mental functioning ( Some ofthe first efforts to integrate psychodynamic principles with findings from neuroscience involved sleep and dreams , and contemporary models formation now incorporate principles from both domains ( techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imagery ( have begun to play an increasingly central role in this ongoing integration

The Psychodynamic Perspective 370 as well ( 2007 , 2000 ) Looking Ahead Psychodynamic Theory in the Century ( and Beyond ) Despite being surrounded by controversy , the psychodynamic perspective on personality has survived for more than a century , reinventing itself in response to new empirical findings , theoretical shifts , and changing social forces . The psychodynamic perspective evolved considerably during the century and will continue to evolve throughout the 21 st century as well . Psychodynamic theory may be the closest thing we have to an overarching , encompassing theory in psychology . It deals with a broad range of and pathological functioning , motivation and emotion , childhood and adulthood , individual and the psychodynamic perspective continues to have tremendous potential for integrating ideas and findings across the many domains of contemporary psychology . Stage Age Range Development Task Associated Personalty Traits Oral months Moving from infantile dependency Dependency toward autonomy Anal months Learning to exercise control over one body , one impulses , and other people Oedipal years Mastering competitive urges Competitiveness and acquiring gender role related behaviors Investing energy in productive , rewarding tasks and activities Puberty onward Mature sexuality ( sexuality blended with intimacy ) Note Dashes ( that no associated tra exist lor that stage ( the latency and Genital periods dues mil II ' in ( li Table The Psychosexual Stage Model

The Psychodynamic Perspective 371 Defense Repression Denial Reaction Formation Displacement Rationalization Sublimation Description Moving ( regarding one , aggressive feelings toward a ) from consciousness to the unconscious Failing to appreciate the negative implications of an event or experience ( for ample , dismissing a potentially serious physical symptom as being unimportant ) Expressing outwardly the exact opposite of what one is feeling inwardly ( for example , when boy fora young girl , but responds by making fun of her ) Expressing a negative a setting that is less risky than the setting one experienced the emotion ( for example , being yelled at by your boss , then coming home and taking it out on your partner ) Making excuses for engaging in unacceptable acts , justifying cheating on your taxes by everyone does it , so it not really cheating ) Expressing unacceptable impulses in a way that actually brings rewards rather than punishment ( for , aggression by playing hockey or football ) Note This is a partial list of ego defenses , although psychologists disagree regarding the precise number of defenses we use , most lists Include ) defenses altogether . Table Some Common Ego Defenses

The Psychodynamic Perspective 372 Model Conception Topographic Unconscious material is a primary determinant of personality Fixation at a psychosexual stage leads to an associated personality type Structural dynamics determine personality traits and defense strategies Table Conceptions of Personality within Psychodynamic Theory

The Psychodynamic Perspective 373 Outside Resources Institution Institute for Psychoanalytic Training and Research ( A branch of the International , plays an active role in supporting empirical research on psychoanalytic theory and therapy . Institution The American Psychoanalytic Association The American Psychoanalytic Association supports psychodynamic training and research , and sponsors a number of workshops ( as well as two annual meetings ) each year . Institution The American Psychological Association Division of Psychoanalysis Division 39 of the American Psychological Association is the psychological home of psychodynamic theory and research . Web Library of Congress Exhibit Freud Conflict and Culture . This is a terrific website full of photos , original manuscripts , and links to various Freud artifacts . Toward the end of Section Three ( From the Individual to Society ) there is a link to Freud 1938 radio address play it and you get to hear Freud voice . Discussion Questions . What is psychic causality ?

What are the main differences between the preconscious and the unconscious in topographic model ?

What are the three key structures in the structural model ofthe what does each structure do ?

Which ego defense do you think is more adaptive reaction formation or sublimation ?

Why ?

How do people raised in individualistic societies differ from those raised in more sociocentric societies with do they perceive and describe themselves ?

According to object relations theory , how do early relationships with our parents and other The Psychodynamic Perspective 374 significant figures affect later friendships and romantic relationships ?

Which field has the potential to benefit more from the emerging new discipline of neuroscience , or psychoanalysis ?

Why ?

The Psychodynamic Perspective 375 Vocabulary Ego defenses Mental strategies , rooted in the ego , that we use to manage anxiety when we feel threatened ( some examples include repression , denial , sublimation , and reaction formation ) An integrative , domain of inquiry seeking to integrate psychoanalytic and neuropsychological ideas and findings to enhance both areas of inquiry ( you can learn more by visiting the webpage of the International Society at ) Object relations theory A modern offshoot ofthe psychodynamic perspective , this theory contends that personality can be understood as reflecting mental images of significant figures ( especially the parents ) that we form early in life in response to interactions taking place within the family these mental images serve as templates ( or scripts ) for later interpersonal relationships . Primacy of the Unconscious The by contemporary empirical the vast majority of mental activity takes place outside conscious awareness . Psychic causality The assumption that nothing in mental life happens by there is no such thing as a random thought or feeling . Psychosexual stage model Probably the most controversial aspect of psychodynamic theory , the psychosexual stage model contends that early in life we progress through a sequence of developmental stages ( oral , anal , Oedipal , latency , and genital ) each with its own unique mode gratification . Structural model Developed to complement and extend the topographic model , the structural model of the mind posits the existence of three interacting mental structures called the id , ego , and superego . Topographic model Freud first model of the mind , which contended that the mind could be divided into three

The Psychodynamic Perspective 376 regions conscious , preconscious , and unconscious . The topographic comes from the fact that topography is the study of maps .

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