General Psychology An Introduction Chapter 10 Cognition Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Chapter 10 Cognition Thinking , Language , and Intelligence 14 Intelligence Robert Intelligence is among the oldest and longest studied topics in all of psychology . The development of assessments to measure this concept is at the core of the development of psychological science itself . This module introduces key historical figures , major theories of intelligence , and common assessment strategies related to intelligence . This module will also discuss controversies related to the study of group differences in intelligence . Learning Objectives List at least two common strategies for measuring intelligence . Name at least one type of intelligence . Define intelligence in simple terms . Explain the controversy relating to differences in intelligence between groups . Introduction Every year hundreds school students converge on Washington , for the annual National Spelling Bee . The bee is an elite event in which children as young as square off to spell words like cymotrichous and appoggiatura . Most people who watch the bee think of these kids as being smart and you likely agree with this description . What makes a person intelligent ?

Is it heredity ( two of the 2014 contestants in the bee have siblings who have previously won ) National Spelling Bee , Is it interest ( the most Intelligence frequently listed favorite subject among spelling bee competitors is math ) other fascinating aspects of intelligence . By the end of the unit you should be able to define intelligence and discuss some common strategies for measuring intelligence . In addition , we will tackle the politically thorny issue of whether there are differences in intelligence between groups such as men and women . A participant in the National Spelling Bee . Defining and Measuring Intelligence When you think of smart people ' you likely have an intuitive sense ofthe qualities that make them intelligent . Maybe you think they have a good memory , or that they can think quickly , or that they simply know a whole lot of information . Indeed , people who exhibit such qualities intelligent . That said , it seems that intelligence must be more than simply knowing facts and being able to remember them . One point in favor of this argument is the idea of animal intelligence . It will come as no surprise to you that a dog , which can learn commands and tricks seems smarter than a snake that can not . In fact , researchers and lay people generally agree with one another that and apes ( including humans ) among the most intelligent animals . Apes such as chimpanzees are capable of complex problem solving and sophisticated communication ( Scientists the social nature as one evolutionary source oftheir intelligence . Primates live together in troops or family groups and are , therefore , highly social creatures . As such , primates tend to have brains that are better developed for communication and long term thinking than most other animals . For instance , the complex social environment has led primates to develop deception , altruism , numerical concepts , and theory of mind ( a sense of the self as a unique individual separate from others in the group , 1982 Hauser , The question of what constitutes human intelligence is one of the oldest inquiries in psychology . When we talk about intelligence we typically mean intellectual ability . This broadly encompasses the learn , remember and use new information , to solve problems and to adapt to novel situations . An early scholar of intelligence , Charles Spearman , proposed the idea that intelligence was one thing , a general factor sometimes known as simply He

Intelligence 257 based this conclusion on the observation that people who perform well in one intellectual area such as verbal ability also tend to perform well in other areas such as logic and reasoning ( A contemporary of Spearman named Francis a cousin of Charles was among those who pioneered psychological measurement ( For three pence would measure various physical characteristics such as grip strength but also some psychological attributes such as the ability distance or discriminate between colors . This is an example ofone ofthe earliest systematic measures of individual ability . was particularly interested in intelligence , which he thought was heritable in much the same way that height and eye color are . He conceived of several rudimentary methods for assessing whether his hypothesis was true . For example , he carefully tracked the family tree ofthe scoring Cambridge students over the previous 40 years . Although he found specific families disproportionately produced top scholars , intellectual achievement could still be the product of economic status , family culture or other factors . was also , possibly , the first to popularize the idea that the heritability of psychological traits could be studied by looking at identical and fraternal twins . Although his methods were crude by modern standards , established intelligence as a variable that could be measured ( The person best known for formally pioneering the measurement of intellectual ability is Alfred . Like , was fascinated by individual differences in intelligence . For instance , he blindfolded chess players and saw that some of them had the ability to continue playing using only their memory to keep the many positions ofthe pieces in mind ( was particularly interested in the development of intelligence , a fascination that led him to observe children carefully in the classroom setting . Along with his colleague Theodore Simon , created a test of child ren intellectual capacity . They created individual test items that should be answerable by children research of given ages . For instance , a child who is three should be commons able to point to her mouth and eyes , a child who is nine should be able to name the months of the year in order , and a twelve year old ought to be able to name sixty words in three minutes . Their assessment became the first IQ or intelligence quotient is a name given to the score of the test . The score

Intelligence 258 . Which of the following is the most similar to 131 3323 ?

Jenny has some chocolates . She eats two and gives half of the remainder to Lisa . If lisa has six chocolates how many have in the beginning ?

A . 12 14 18 . Which of the following items is not like the others in the list ?

duck , raft , canoe , stone , rubber ball Rubber ball . What do steam and ice have in common ?

can both harm skin . They are both made from water They are both found in the kitchen They are both the products of water at extreme temperatures Answers ) A ) stone ) is the most sophisticated answer Table Examples of the types of items you might see on an intelligence test . is derived by dividing a child mental age ( the score from the test ) by their chronological age to create an overall quotient . These days , the phrase does not apply specifically to the test and is used to generally denote intelligence or a score on any intelligence test . In the early the test was adapted by a Stanford professor named

Intelligence 259 Lewis to create what is , perhaps , the most famous intelligence test in the world , the ( The major advantage of this new test was that it was standardized . Based on a large sample of children was able to plot the scores in a normal distribution , shaped like a bell curve ( see Fig . To understand a normal distribution think about the height of people . Most people are average in height with relatively fewer being tall or short , and fewer still being extremely tall or extremely short . laid out intelligence scores in exactly the same way , allowing for easy and reliable and comparisons between individuals . IQ Score Distribution Percentage of Population 95 ( 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 IQ Score Figure Bell Curve Normal Distribution IQ Looking at another modern intelligence Adult Intelligence Scale ( can provide clues to a definition of intelligence itself . Motivated by several criticisms of the test , psychologist David sought to create a superior measure of intelligence . He was critical ofthe the relied so heavily on verbal ability and was also suspicious of using a single score to capture all of intelligence . To address these issues created a test that tapped a wide range of intellectual abilities . This understanding of it is made up of a pool of specific a notable departure from Spearman concept intelligence . The assesses people ability to remember , compute , understand language , reason well , and process information quickly ( 1955 )

Intelligence 260 One interesting of measuring intelligence for so many years is that we can chart changes overtime . It might seem strange to you that intelligence can change overthe decades but that appears to have happened over the last 80 years we have been measuring this topic . Here how we know IQ tests have an average score of 100 . When new waves of people are asked to take older tests they tend to outperform the original sample from years ago on which the test was . This gain is known as the Flynn Effect , named Flynn , the researcher who first identified it ( Several hypotheses have been put forth to explain the Flynn Effect including better nutrition ( healthier brains ! greater familiarity with testing in general , and more exposure to visual stimuli . Today , there is no perfect agreement among psychological researchers with regards to the causes of increases in average scores on intelligence tests . Perhaps if you choose a career in psychology you will be the one to discover the answer ! Types of Intelligence David approach to testing intellectual ability was based on the fundamental idea that there are , in essence , many aspects to intelligence . Other scholars have echoed this idea by going so far as to suggest that there are actually even different types of intelligence . You likely have heard distinctions made between street smarts and book learning . The former refers to practical wisdom accumulated through experience while the latter indicates formal education . A person high in street smarts might have a superior ability to catch a person in a lie , to persuade others , or to think quickly under pressure . A person high in book learning , by contrast , might have a large be able to large number of references to classic novels . Although psychologists do use street smarts or book smarts as professional terms they do believe that intelligence comes in different types . There are many ways to parse apart the concept of intelligence . Many scholars believe that Carroll ( review of more than 400 data sets provides the best currently existing single source for organizing various concepts related to intelligence . Carroll divided intelligence into three levels , or strata , descending from the most abstract down to the most specific ( see Fig . To understand this way of categorizing simply think of a car . Car is a general word that denotes all types of motorized vehicles . At the more specific level under car might be various types of cars such as sedans , sports cars , trucks , station wagons , and so forth . More specific still would be certain models of each such as a Honda Civic or Ferrari Enzo . In the same manner , Carroll called the highest level ( stratum III ) the general intelligence factor Under this were more specific stratum II categories such as fluid intelligence and visual perception and processing speed . Each ofthese , in turn , can be into very specific components such as spatial scanning , reaction time , and word fluency .

Intelligence 261 Thinking of intelligence as Carroll ( 1993 ) does , as a collection of specific mental abilities , has distinguish between fluid and intelligence , both of which show up on stratum II of Carroll model . Fluid intelligence is the ability to think on your feet that is , to solve problems . intelligence , on the other hand , is the ability to use language , skills and experience to address problems . The former is associated more with youth while the latter increases with age . You may have noticed the way in which younger people can adapt to new situations and use trial and error to quickly figure out solutions . By contrast , older people tend to rely on their relatively superior store of knowledge to solve problems . Stratum Ill A , Broad Retrieval Cognitive Speediness . Processing Speed Stratum I Inductive Reasoning Verbal Comprehension Foreign Language Aptitude Visual Spatial Scanning Sound Localization Word Fluency Reaction Time Figure Model of Intelligence Harvard professor Howard Gardner is another figure in psychology who is for championing the notion that there are different types of intelligence . Gardner theory is appropriately , called multiple intelligences . Gardner theory is based on the idea that people process information through different channels and these are relatively independent ofone another . He has identified common intelligences including ) interpersonal , and ) naturalistic ( Gardner , 1985 ) Many people are attracted to Gardner theory because it suggests that people each learn in unique ways . There are now many influenced

Intelligence 262 schools in the world . Another type of intelligence is Emotional intelligence . Unlike traditional models of intelligence that emphasize cognition ( thinking ) the idea of emotional intelligence emphasizes the experience and expression of emotion . Some researchers argue that emotional intelligence is a set in which an individual can accurately understand the emotions of others , can identify and label their own emotions , and can use emotions . Other researchers believe that emotional intelligence is a mixture of abilities , such as stress management , and personality , such as a person predisposition for certain moods ( In fact , emotional intelligence is similar to more traditional notions of cognitive intelligence with regards to workplace benefits . Schmidt and Hunter ( for example , reviewed research on intelligence in the workplace context and show that intelligence is the single best predictor of doing well in job training programs , of learning on thejob . They also report that general intelligence is moderately correlated with all types of jobs but especially with managerial and complex , technical jobs . There is one last point that is important to bear in mind about intelligence . It turns out that the way an individual thinks about his or her own intelligence is also important because it predicts performance . Researcher Carol has made a career out of looking at the differences between high IQ children who perform well and those who do not , under achievers . Among her most interesting findings is that it is not gender or social class that sets apart the high and low performers . Instead , it is their mindset . The children who believe that their abilities in their intelligence a fixed trait tend to . By contrast , kids who believe that intelligence is changeable and evolving tend to handle failure better and perform better ( 1986 ) refers to this as a mindset and having a growth mindset appears to be healthier . Correlates of Intelligence The research on mindset is interesting but there can also be a temptation to interpret it as suggesting that every human has an unlimited potential for intelligence and that becoming smarter is only a matter of positive thinking . There is some evidence that genetics is an important factor in the intelligence equation . For instance , a number of studies on genetics in adults have yielded the result that intelligence is largely , but not totally , inherited ( a healthy attitude about the nature of smarts and working hard can both definitely help intellectual performance but it also helps to have the genetic leaning

Intelligence toward intelligence . Carol research on the mindset also brings one ofthe most interesting and controversial issues surrounding intelligence research to the fore group differences . From the very beginning of the study of intelligence researchers have wondered about differences between groups of people such as men and women . With regards to potential differences between the sexes some people have noticed that women are in certain fields . In 1976 , for example , women comprised just ofall faculty members in engineering ( IU ?

Even today women make up between and 15 of all faculty in intensive fields at the 50 top universities . This phenomenon could be explained in many ways it might be the result of inequalities in the educational system , it might be due to differences in socialization wherein are encouraged to develop other interests , it might be the result of that women responsible for a larger portion of childcare obligations and therefore make different types of professional decisions , or it might be due to innate differences between these groups , to a few possibilities . The possibility of innate Women account for a disproportionately small percentage of those employed in career such as engineering . Photo National Laboratory differences is the most controversial because many people see it as either the product of or the foundation for sexism . In today political landscape it is easy to see that asking certain questions such as are men smarter than women ?

would be inflammatory . In a comprehensive review of research on intellectual abilities and sex Ceci and colleagues ( 2009 ) argue against the hypothesis that biological and genetic differences account for much of the sex differences in intellectual ability . Instead , they believe that a complex web of influences ranging from societal expectations to test taking strategies to individual interests account for many of the sex differences found in math and similar intellectual abilities . A more interesting question , and perhaps a more sensitive one , might be to inquire in which ways men and women might differ in intellectual ability , if at all . That is , researchers should not seek to prove that one group or another is better but might examine the ways that they might differ and offer explanations for any differences that are found . Researchers have

Intelligence 264 investigated sex differences in intellectual ability . In a review ofthe research literature ( found that women appear , on average , superior to men on measures of fine motor skill , acquired knowledge , reading comprehension , decoding expression , and generally have higher grades in school . Men , by contrast , appear , on average , superior to women on measures of fluid reasoning related to math and science , perceptual tasks that involve moving objects , and tasks that require transformations in working memory such as mental rotations of physical spaces . also notes that men are disproportionately represented on the low end of cognitive functioning including in mental retardation , dyslexia , and attention deficit disorders ( Other researchers have examined various explanatory hypotheses for why sex differences in intellectual ability occur . Some studies have provided mixed evidence for while others point to evidence for social factors ( One interesting phenomenon that has received research scrutiny is the idea of stereotype threat . Stereotype threat is the idea that mental access to a particular stereotype can have impact on a member ofthe stereotyped group . In one study ( for example , women who were informed that women tend to fare poorly on math before taking a math test actually performed worse relative to a control group who did not hearthe stereotype . One possible antidote to stereotype threat , at least in the case ofwomen , is to make a ( such as listing positive personal qualities ) before the threat occurs . In one study , for instance , Martens and her colleagues ( had women write about personal qualities that they valued before taking a math test . The affirmation largely erased the effect of stereotype by improving math scores for women relative to a control group but similar affirmations had little effect for men ( These types of controversies compel many lay people to wonder ifthere might be a problem with intelligence measures . It is natural to wonder ifthey are somehow biased against certain groups . Psychologists typically answer such questions by pointing out that bias in the testing sense of the word is different than how people use the word in everyday speech . Common use of bias denotes a prejudice based on group membership . Scientific bias , on the other hand , is related to the psychometric properties of the test such as validity and reliability . Validity is the idea that an assessment measures what it claims to measure and that it can predict re behaviors or performance . To this end , intelligence tests are not biased because they are fairly accurate measures and . There are , however , real biases , prejudices , and inequalities in the social world that might benefit some advantaged group while hindering some disadvantaged others . Conclusion

Intelligence 265 Although you might not be able to spell or staphylococci indeed , you might not even know what they do need to count yourself out in the intelligence department . Now that we have examined intelligence in depth we can return to our intuitive view of those students who compete in the National Spelling Bee . Are they smart ?

Certainly , they seem to have high verbal intelligence . There is also the possibility that they benefit from either a genetic boost in intelligence , a supportive social environment , or both . Watching them spell there is also much we do not . We , for instance , how emotionally intelligent they are or how they might use intelligence . This highlights the fact that intelligence is a complicated issue . Fortunately , psychologists continue to research this fascinating topic and their studies continue to yield new insights .

Intelligence 266 Vocabulary Short for general factor and is often used to be synonymous with intelligence itself . Intelligence An individual cognitive capability . This includes the ability to acquire , process , recall and apply information . Short for intelligence This is a score , typically obtained from a widely used measure of intelligence that is meant to rank a person intellectual ability against that of others . Norm Assessments are given to a representative sample of a population to determine the range of scores for that population . These norms are then used to place an individual who takes that assessment on a range of scores in which he or she is compared to the population at large . Standardize given in the all tests standardized scores are individual scores that are computed to be referenced against normative scores for a population ( see norm ) Stereotype threat The phenomenon in which people are concerned that they will conform to a stereotype or that their performance does conform to that stereotype , especially in instances in which the stereotype is brought to their conscious awareness .

Intelligence 267 References , 2006 ) The model of intelligence ( 18 ( A . 894 ) des grands . Paris . 2004 ) Genetic influence on human psychological traits A survey . Current Directions in Psychological Science 13 ( Carroll , 1993 ) Human cognitive abilities A survey of studies . Cambridge , England Cambridge University Press . Carroll , 1993 ) Human cognitive abilities A survey of studies . Cambridge , England Cambridge University Press . Ceci , Williams , 2009 ) Women underrepresentation in science cultural and biological considerations . Psychological Bulletin , 135 , 1986 ) Motivational processes affecting learning . American psychologist , 41 ( 10 ) Flynn . 1987 ) Massive IQ gains in 14 nations What IQ tests really measure . Psychological Bulletin 701 , 1982 ) and the emergence of mind in primates . of , Gardner , 1985 ) Frames The theory intelligences . New York Basic Books . 1997 ) Sex differences in intelligence Implications for education . American Psychologist , 52 ( 10 ) 1997 ) Sex differences in intelligence Implications for education . American Psychologist , 52 ( 10 ) Hauser , Ware , 1996 ) Numerical representations in primates . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 93 ( Horn , 1966 ) Refinement and test of the theory of fluid and crystallized general Psychology , 57 ( Hunt , 2009 ) The story . New York Random House , Hunt , 2009 ) The story . New York Random House , 1924 ) The mentality . Oxford , Brace . Gall , 2006 ) Evidence that emotional intelligence is related performance and affect and attitudes at work . 18

Intelligence 268 ( 2006 ) Combating stereotype threat The effect of on women intellectual performance . journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 42 ( 2006 ) Combating stereotype threat The effect of on women intellectual performance . journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 42 ( 1997 ) What is emotional intelligence ?

In ( Emotional development and emotional intelligence Educational implications ( New York Basic . Spelling Bee . Statistics . Retrieved from Spelling Bee . Get to Know the Competition . Retrieved from , Brody , Ceci , 1996 ) Intelligence and unknowns . American Psychologist , 51 , Blair , Dickens , 2012 ) Intelligence new findings and theoretical developments . American Psychologist , 67 ( Schmidt , Hunter , 1998 ) The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings . Psychological Bulletin , 124 , Spearman , 1904 ) General , Objectively Determined and Measured . The , 15 ( Spencer , Steele , Quinn , 1999 ) Stereotype threat and women math performance . journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 35 ( 1916 ) The measurement of intelligence An explanation of and a complete guide for the use of the Stanford revision and extension of the Intelligence Scale . Boston . 1916 ) The measurement of intelligence An explanation of and a complete guide for the use of the Stanford revision and extension of the Intelligence Scale . Boston . 1955 ) Manual for the Adult Intelligence Scale . Oxford Psychological Corporation .

15 Judgment and Decision Making Max Humans are not perfect decision makers . Not only are we not perfect , but we depart from perfection or rationality in systematic and predictable ways . The understanding of these systematic and predictable departures is core to the field and decision making . By understanding these limitations , we can also identify strategies for making better and more effective decisions . Learning Objectives Understand the systematic biases that affect and decision making . Develop strategies for making better decisions . Experience some of the biases through sample decisions . Introduction Every day you have the opportunity to make countless decisions should you eat dessert , cheat on a test , or attend a sports event with your friends . lfyou reflect on your own history of choices you will realize that they vary in quality some are rational and some are not . This module provides an overview of decision making and includes discussion of many of the common biases involved in this process . In his Nobel work , psychologist Herbert Simon ( 1957 March Simon , 1958 ) argued that our decisions are bounded in their rationality . According to the bounded

judgment and Decision Making 270 rationality framework , human beings try to make rational decisions ( such as weighing the costs and benefits ofa choice ) but our cognitive limitations prevent being fully rational . Time and cost constraints limit the quantity and quality ofthe information that is available to us . Moreover , we only retain a relatively small amount of information in our usable memory . And limitations on intelligence and perceptions constrain the ability of even very bright decision makers to accurately make the best choice based on the information that is available . About 15 years after the publication of , seminal work , and ( 1973 , their own Nobel research , which provided critical information about specific systematic and predictable biases , or mistakes , that influence judgment ( received the prize after death ) The WOl ' Of People are subject to systematic and predictable biases Simon , and paved the Way that . In many instances this results to our modern understanding and in decision making . And their two Nobel prizes signaled the broad acceptance of the field of behavioral decision research as a mature area of intellectual study . What Would a Rational Decision Look Like ?

Imagine that during your senior year in college , you apply to a number programs , law schools , or business schools ( or another set of programs in whatever field most interests you ) The good news is that you receive many acceptance letters . So , how should you decide where to go ?

and Moore ( outline the following six steps that you should take to make a rational decision ( define the problem ( right graduate program ) identify the criteria necessary the multiple options ( location , prestige , faculty , etc . weight the criteria ( rank them in terms of importance to you ) generate alternatives ( the schools that admitted you ) rate each alternative on each criterion ( rate each school on each criteria that you identified , and ( compute the optimal decision . Acting rationally would require that you follow these six steps in a fully rational manner . I strongly advise people to think through important decisions such as this in a manner similar to this process . Unfortunately , we often do . Many of us rely on our intuitions far more than we should . And when we do try to think systematically , the way we enter data into such formal processes is often biased .

judgment and Decision Making People often have to use incomplete information to make decisions about risk Photo 271 Fortunately , psychologists have learned a great deal about the biases that affect our thinking . This knowledge about the systematic and predictable mistakes that even the best and the brightest make can help you identify flaws in your thought processes and reach better decisions . Biases in Our Decision Process Simon concept of bounded rationality taught us that judgment deviates from rationality , but it did not tell us is biased . and ( research helped to diagnose the specific systematic , directional biases that affect human judgment . These biases are created by the tendency to a rational decision process by relying on a number of simplifying strategies , or rules , known as . allow us to cope with the complex environment surrounding our decisions . Unfortunately , they also lead to systematic and predictable biases . To highlight some of these biases please answer the following three quiz items Problem ( adapted from , 1969 ) Listed below are 10 uncertain quantities . Do not look up any information on these items . For each , write down your best estimate of the quantity . Next , put a lower and upper bound around your estimate , such that you are 98 percent confident that your range surrounds the actual quantity . Respond to each ofthese items even ifyou admit to knowing very little about these quantities . The first year the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded . The date the French celebrate Bastille Day . The distance from the Earth to the Moon . The height of the Leaning Tower of

judgment and Decision Making 272 Number of students attending Oxford University ( as of 201 ) Number of people who have traveled to space ( as of 201 ) annual budget for the University of Pennsylvania Average life expectancy in ( as of 2012 ) World record for in a period 10 . Number of colleges and universities in the Boston metropolitan area Problem ( adapted , 1981 ) We knowthat executive fraud occurs and that it has been associated with many recent financial scandals . And , we know that many cases of management fraud go undetected even when annual audits are performed . Do you think that the incidence of significant management fraud is more than 10 in firms ( that is , percent ) audited by Big Four accounting firms ?

Yes , more than 10 in Big Four clients have significant management fraud . No , fewer than 10 in Big Four clients have significant management fraud . What is your estimate of the number of Big Four clients per that have significant management fraud ?

Fill in the blank below with the appropriate number . in Big Four clients have significant management fraud . Problem ( adapted from , 1981 ) Imagine that the United States is preparing for the outbreak ofan unusual avian disease that is expected to kill 600 people . Two alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed . Assume that the exact scientific estimates of the consequences of the programs are as follows . Program A If Program A is adopted , 200 people will be saved . Program If Program is adopted , there is a probability that 600 people will be saved and a probability that no people will be saved .

judgment and Decision Making 273 Which of the two programs would you favor ?

Overconfidence On the first problem , ifyou set your ranges so that you 98 percent confident , you should expect that approximately , or nine to 10 , of your ranges would include the actual value . So , let look at the correct answers . 1901 . ofjuly . mi ) 183 ) as of 2014 ) 536 people ( as of 2013 ) billion . years ( as of 201 ) 10 52 Overconfidence is a natural part of most people process and this can get us into trouble . Is it possible to overcome our faulty thinking ?

Perhaps . See the Fixing Our Decisions section below . Count the number ofyour 98 ranges , Kim , that actually surrounded the true quantities . lfyou surrounded nine to 10 , you were appropriately confident in . But most readers surround only between three ( 30 ) and seven ( 70 ) ofthe correct answers , despite claiming 98 confidence that each range would surround the true value . As this problem shows , humans tend to be overconfident in . Anchoring Regarding the second problem , people vary a great deal in their final assessment of the level of management fraud , but most think that 10 out of is too low . When I run this exercise in class , half of the students respond to the question that I asked you to answer . The other half receive a similar problem , but instead are asked whether the correct answer is higher or lower than 200 rather than 10 . Most people think that 200 is high . But , again , most people claim that this anchor does not affect estimate . Yet , on average , people who are presented with the question that focuses on the number 10 ( out of )

judgment and Decision Making 274 give answers that are about size of the estimates ofthose facing questions that use an anchor of 200 . When we are making decisions , any initial anchor that we face is likely to influence , even ifthe anchor is arbitrary . That is , we insufficiently adjust our judgments away from the anchor . Framing Turning to Problem , most people choose Program A , which saves 200 lives for sure , over Program . But , again , ifl was in front ofa classroom , only half of my students would receive this problem . The other have received the same , but with the following two options . Program If Program is adopted , 400 people will die . Program If Program is adopted , there is a probability that no one will die and a probability that 600 people will die . Which of the two programs would you favor ?

Careful review of the two versions of this problem clarifies that they are objectively the same . Saving 200 people ( Program A ) means losing 400 people ( Program ) and Programs and are also objectively identical . Yet , in one of the most famous problems in judgment and decision making , most individuals choose Program A in the first set and Program in the second set ( 1981 ) People respond very differently to saving versus losing when the difference is based just on the framing of the choices . The problem that I asked you to respond to was framed in terms of saving lives , and the implied reference point was the worst outcome of 600 deaths . Most of us , when we make decisions that concern gains , are risk averse as a consequence , we lock in the possibility of saving 200 lives for sure . In the alternative version , the problem is framed in terms of losses . Now the implicit reference point is the best outcome of no deaths due to the Asian disease . And in this case , most people are risk seeking when making decisions regarding losses . These ofthe many biases that affect even the smartest among us . Other research shows that we are biased in favor of information that is easy for our minds to retrieve , are insensitive to the importance of base rates and sample sizes when we are making inferences , assume that random events will always look random , search for information that confirms our expectations even when information would be more informative , claim a priori knowledge that did exist due to the hindsight bias , and are subject to a host of other

judgment and Decision Making 275 effects that continue to be developed in the literature ( Moore , 2013 ) Contemporary Developments Bounded rationality served as the integrating concept of the field of behavioral decision research for 40 years . Then , in 2000 , Thaler ( suggested that decision making is bounded in two ways not precisely captured by the concept of bounded rationality . First , he argued that our willpower is bounded and that , as a consequence , we give greater weight to present concerns than to future concerns . Our immediate motivations are often our interests in a variety of ways , such as the common failure to save adequately for retirement or the difficulty many people have staying on a diet . Second , Thaler suggested that our is bounded such that we care about the outcomes of others . Sometimes we positively value the outcomes of them more of a commodity than is necessary out ofa desire to be fair , for example . And , The concept of bounded willpower may , in unfortunate , we sometimes are willing to why many ofus are better shoppers than savers . forgo our own benefits out ofa desire to harm others . Photo Bao My colleagues and I have recently added two other important bounds to the list . and ( 2005 ) and and developed the concept of bounded awareness to refer to the broad array failures that affect our judgment , specifically the many ways in which we fail to notice obvious and important information that is available to us . development is the application and research to the areas of behavioral economics , behavioral finance , and behavioral marketing , among others . In each case , these fields have been transformed by applying and extending research from the judgment and literature . Fixing Our Decisions

judgment and Decision Making 276 Ample evidence documents that even smart people are routinely impaired by biases . Early research demonstrated , unfortunately , that awareness ofthese problems does little to reduce bias ( 1982 ) The good news is that more recent research documents interventions between System and System decision making . System processing is our intuitive system , which is typically fast , automatic , effortless , implicit , and emotional . System refers to decision making that is slower , conscious , effortful , explicit , and logical . The six logical steps making outlined earlier describe a System process . Clearly , a complete System process is not required for every decision we make . In most situations , our System thinking is quite sufficient it would be impractical , for example , to logically reason through every choice we make while shopping for groceries . But , preferably , System logic should influence our most important decisions . Nonetheless , we use our System processes for most decisions in life , relying on it even when making important decisions . The key to effects and improving our decisions is to transition from trusting our intuitive System thinking toward engaging more in deliberative System thought . Unfortunately , the busier and more rushed people are , the more they have on their minds , and the more likely they are to rely on System thinking ( 2004 ) The frantic pace of Fortunately , it is possible to identify conditions where we rely on intuition at our peril and substitute more deliberative thought . One fascinating example of this substitution comes from journalist Michael Lewis ( account of how Billy , the general manager ofthe Oakland Athletics , improved the outcomes ofthe failing baseball team after recognizing that the intuition of baseball executives was limited and systematically biased and that their intuitions had been incorporated into important decisions in ways that created enormous mistakes . Lewis ( documents that baseball professionals tend to overgeneralize from their personal experiences , be overly influenced by players very recent performances , and overweigh what they see with their own eyes , despite the fact that players records provide far better data . By substituting valid of future performance ( System thinking ) the Athletics were able to outperform expectations given their very limited payroll . Another important direction for improving decisions comes from Thaler and ( 2008 ) book Nudge Improving Decisions about Health , Wealth , and Happiness . Rather than setting out to , outline a how decision architects

judgment and Decision Making 277 can change environments in ways that account for human bias and trigger better decisions as a result . For example , Choi , and ( 2993 ) have shown that simple changes to defaults can dramatically improve people decisions . They tackle the failure of many people to save for retirement and show that a simple change can significantly influence enrollment in 401 ( programs . In most companies , when you start , you need to sign up the company retirement savings plan . Many people take years before getting around to doing so . When , instead , companies automatically enroll their employees in 401 ( programs and give them the opportunity to opt out , the net enrollment rate rises significantly . By changing defaults , we can counteract the human tendency to live with the status quo . Nudges can be used to help people make better decisions about saving for retirement . mo , Johnson and ( 2003 ) organ donation study reveals that countries that have organ donation policies , where the default is not to harvest people organs without their prior consent , sacrifice thousands of lives in comparison to policies , where the default is to harvest organs . The United States and too many other countries require that citizens opt in to organ donation through a proactive effort as a consequence , consent rates range between across these countries . In contrast , changing the decision architecture to an policy improves consent rates to to . donation system with knowledge ofthe power can dramatically change donation rates without changing the options available to citizens . In contrast , a more intuitive strategy , such as the one in place in the United States , inspires defaults that result in many unnecessary deaths . Concluding Thoughts Our days are filled with decisions ranging from the small ( what should I wear today ?

to the important ( should we get ) Many have real world consequences on our health , finances and relationships . Simon , and created a field that highlights the surprising and predictable deficiencies of the human mind when making decisions . As we understand more about our own biases and thinking shortcomings we can begin to take them into account or to avoid them . Only now have we reached the frontier of using this knowledge to help people make better decisions .

judgment and Decision Making 278 Outside Resources Book , Moore , 201 ) in managerial decision making ( john Wiley Sons Book , 2011 ) Thinking , Fast and Slow . New York , NY , and . Book Thaler , 2008 ) Nudge Improving Decisions about Health , Wealth , and Happiness . New Haven , Yale University Press . Discussion Questions . Are the biases in this module a problem in the real world ?

How would you use this module to be a better decision maker ?

Can you see any biases in today newspaper ?

judgment and Decision Making 279 Vocabulary Anchoring The bias to be affected by an initial anchor , even ifthe anchor is arbitrary , and to insufficiently adjust away from that anchor . Biases The systematic and predictable mistakes that influence the judgment of even very talented human beings . Bounded awareness The systematic ways in which we fail to notice obvious and important information that is available to us . Bounded ethicality The systematic ways in which are limited in ways we are not even aware . Bounded rationality Model of human behavior that suggests that humans try to make rational decisions but are bounded due to cognitive limitations . Bounded The systematic and predictable ways in which we care about the outcomes of others . Bounded willpower The tendency to place greater weight on present concerns rather than future concerns . Framing The bias to be systematically affected by the way in which information is presented , while holding the objective information constant . cognitive ( or thinking ) strategies that simplify decision making by using mental Overconfident The bias to have greater confidence in than is warranted based on a rational assessment .

judgment and Decision Making 280 System Our intuitive system , which is typically fast , automatic , effortless , implicit , and emotional . System Our more deliberative system , which is slower , conscious , effortful , explicit , and logical .

judgment and Decision Making 281 References , 1969 ) A progress report on the training of probability assessors . Unpublished Report . 2000 ) Implicit stereotypes and memory The bounded rationality beliefs . In Scarry ( Memory , brain , and belief ( Cambridge , MA Harvard University Press . Moore , 2013 ) in managerial decision making ( John Wiley Sons Inc . Choi , 2008 ) The importance of default options for retirement saving outcomes Evidence from the United States . In Kay ( Lessons from pension reform in the Americas ( Oxford Oxford University Press . 2004 ) Societal and managerial implications of implicit social cognition Why milliseconds matter . Research , 17 ( 2007 ) Bounded awareness What you fail to see can hurt you . Mind Society , 2005 ) Bounded psychological barrier to recognizing conflicts of interest . In Moore , Cain , Conflicts ( New York , NY Cambridge University Press . 1982 ) In , judgment under uncertainty and biases ( New York , NY Cambridge University Press . Johnson , 2003 ) Do defaults save lives ?

Science 302 ( 5649 ) Joyce , 1981 ) Are auditors judgments sufficiently regressive ?

journal of Accounting Research , 19 ( A . 1979 ) Prospect theory An analysis of decision under risk . 47 ( Lewis , 2003 ) The art of winning an unfair game . New York , NY Norton Company March , Simon , A . 1958 ) Organizations . Oxford Wiley . Simon , A . 1957 ) Models of man , social and rational Mathematical essays on rational human behavior in a social setting . New York , NY John Wiley Sons . West , 2000 ) Individual differences in reasoning Implications for the rationality debate ?

Behavioral and Brain Sciences , 23 , judgment and Decision Making 282 Thaler , 2000 ) From homo to homo sapiens . journal of Economics Perspectives , 14 , Thaler , 2008 ) Nudge Improving decisions about health , wealth , and happiness . New Haven , Yale University Press . 1981 ) The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice . Science , New Series , 211 ( 4481 ) 974 ) under uncertainty and , New Series , 185 ( 4157 ) 1973 ) Availability A heuristic for judging frequency and probability . Cognitive Psychology ,

16 Language and Language Use Kashima Humans have the capacity to use complex language , far more than any other species on Earth . We cooperate with each other to use language for communication language is often used to communicate about and even construct and maintain our social world . Language use and human sociality are inseparable parts of Homo sapiens as a biological species . Learning Objectives Define basic terms used to describe language use . Describe the process by which people can share new information by using language . Characterize the typical content of conversation and its social implications . Characterize psychological consequences of language use and give an example . Introduction Imagine two men of age , Adam and Ben , walking down the corridor . Judging from their clothing , they are young businessmen , taking a break from work . They then have this exchange . Adam You know , Gary bought a Ben Oh yeah ?

For Mary , is it ?

Adam nods .

Language and Language Use 284 Ifyou are watching this scene and hearing their conversation , what can you guess from this ?

First of all , you guess that Gary bought a ring for Mary , whoever Gary and Mary might be . Perhaps you would infer that Gary is getting married to Mary . What else can you guess ?

Perhaps that Adam and Ben are fairly close colleagues , and both ofthem know Gary and Mary reasonably well . In other words , you can guess the social relationships people who are engaging in the conversation and the people whom they are talking about . Language is used in our everyday lives . If psychology is a science of behavior , scientific investigation of language use must be one of the most central is because language use is ubiquitous . Every human group has a language human infants ( except those who have unfortunate disabilities ) learn at least one language without being taught explicitly . Even when children who do have much language to begin with are brought Language together they can begin to develop and use of lives we do . Much of contemporary human civilization their own language . There IS at least one would have been possible without it . Photo Marc known instance where children who had had little language were brought together and developed their own language spontaneously with minimum input from adults . In in the , deaf children who were separately raised in various locations were brought together to schools for the first time . Teachers tried to teach them Spanish with little success . However , they began to notice that the children were using their hands and gestures , apparently to communicate with each other . Linguists were brought in to find out what was turned outthe children had developed their own sign language . That was the birth ofa new language , Nicaraguan Sign Language ( 1999 ) Language is ubiquitous , and we humans are born to use it . How Do We Use Language ?

If language is so ubiquitous , how do we actually use it ?

To be sure , some of us use it to write diaries and poetry , but the primary form use is interpersonal . That how we learn language , and that howwe use like Adam and Ben , we exchange words and utterances to communicate with each other . Let consider the simplest case of two people , Adam and Ben , talking with each other . According to Clark ( 1996 ) in order for them to carry out a conversation , they must keep track ground . Common ground is a set

Language and Language Use 285 that the speaker and listener share and they think , assume , or otherwise take for granted that they share . So , when Adam says , Gary bought a ring , he takes for granted that Ben knows the meaning of the words he is using , whom Gary is , and what buying a ring means . When Ben says , For Mary , is it ?

he takes for granted that Adam knows the meaning of these words , who Mary is , and what buying a ring for someone means . All these are part of their common ground . Note that , when Adam presents the information about Gary purchase ofa ring , Ben responds by presenting his inference about who the recipient ofthe ring might be , namely , Mary . In conversational terms , utterance acts as evidence for his comprehension Yes , I understood that Gary bought a ring Adam nod acts as evidence that he now has understood what Ben has said Yes , I The common ground in a conversation helps people coordinate their language use . And as conversations progress common ground shifts and changes as the participants add new information and cooperate to help one another understand . Photo understood that you understood that Gary has bought a ring for Mary . This new information is now added to the initial common ground . Thus , the pair of utterances by Adam and Ben ( called an adjacency pair ) together with affirmative nod jointly completes one proposition , Gary bought a ring for Mary , and adds this information to their common ground . This way , common ground changes as we talk , gathering new information that we agree on and have evidence that we share . It evolves as people take turns to assume the roles of speaker and listener , and actively engage in the exchange of meaning . Common ground helps people coordinate their language use . For instance , when a speaker says something to a listener , he or she takes into account their common ground , that is , what the speaker thinks the listener knows . Adam said what he did because he knew Ben would knowwho . He have said , A friend ofmine is getting married , to another colleague who would know Gary . This is called audience design ( i ) speakers design their utterances for their audiences by taking into account the audiences knowledge . If their audiences are seen to be knowledgeable about an object ( such as Ben about Gary ) they tend to use a brief label ofthe object ( Gary ) for a less knowledgeable audience , they use more descriptive words ( a friend of mine ) to help the audience understand their utterances ( Box )

Language and Language Use 286 So , language use is a cooperative Language Use Design activity , but how do we coordinate on , land ( at , when communicating about , speakers more descriptive information ( physical appearances , about lesser known and less den people ( Kev , Carl ) than better known ones ( Woody Allen , Clint Eastwood ) so that their listeners car whom they are setting ?

To be sure , we have a conversation in small groups . The number of people engaging in a conversation ata time is rarely more than four . By some counts ( Dunbar , Duncan 1995 talk . who familiarwith City cou their audiences of conversations happen in a group with soon after they conversation a of four or , their descriptions of landmarks to help the audience coordinating conversation among ide Brooklyn Stadium four is not as difficult as coordinating more easily . More generally , Grice ( 1975 ) suggested that conversation among 10 . But , even fo low certain rules , which he calls conversational maxims , among only four people , ifyou think to be informative ( maxim , maxim of about it . everyday Conversation is an qua ) relevant ( maxim of relation ) and clear and almost miraculous achievement . We ( maxim typically have a conversation by rapidly exchanging words and utterances in real time in a noisy environment . Think about your conversation at home in the morning , at a bus stop , in a shopping mall . How can we keep track of our common ground under such circumstances ?

Pickering and ( argue that we achieve our conversational coordination by virtue of our ability to align each other actions at different levels of language use lexicon ( words and expressions ) syntax ( grammatical rules for arranging words and expressions together ) as well as speech rate and accent . For instance , when one person uses a certain expression to refer to an object in a conversation , others tend to use the same expression ( i ( Furthermore , if someone says the cowboy offered a banana to the robber , ratherthan the cowboy offered the robber a banana , others are more likely to use the same syntactic structure ( the girl gave a book to the boy rather than the girl gave the boy a book ) even if different words are involved ( Pickering , different accents ( United States and United Kingdom ) you might have noticed that you speak with Americans with an American accent , but speak with Britons with a British accent .

Language and Language Use 287 Pickering and ( suggest that these interpersonal alignments at different levels of language use can activate similar situation models in the minds ofthose who are engaged in a conversation . Situation models are representations about the topic ofa conversation . So , if you are talking about Gary and Mary with your friends , you might have a situation model of Gary giving Mary a ring in your mind . Pickering and theory is that as you describe this situation using language , others in the conversation begin to use similar words and grammar , and many other aspects of language use converge . As you all do so , similar situation models begin to be built in everyone mind through the mechanism known as priming . Priming occurs when your thinking about one concept ( ring ) reminds you about other related concepts ( marriage , wedding ceremony ) So , if everyone in the conversation knows about Gary , Mary , and the usual course of events associated with a , wedding , marriage , everyone is likely to construct a shared situation model about Gary and Mary . Thus , making use of our highly developed interpersonal ability to imitate ( executing the same action as another person ) and cognitive ability to infer ( one idea leading to other ideas ) we humans coordinate our common ground , share situation models , and communicate with each other . What Do We Talk About ?

things such as what to have for dinner , but also more complex and abstract things such as the meaning of life and death , liberty , equality , and fraternity , and many other philosophical thoughts . Well , when naturally occurring conversations were actually observed ( Dunbar , Duncan , conversation , for both men and women , turned out to be talk about themselves and they like Adam and Ben , more often than not , people use language to communicate about their social world . Studies people love to gossip . humans can social their friends and enemies are , what the right thing to do is under what circumstances , and so on . Photo Gossip may sound trivial and seem to belittle our noble ability for one of

Language and Language Use 288 the most remarkable human abilities ofall that distinguish us from other , some have argued that to think and communicate about our social world one ofthe most critical uses to which language has been put . Dunbar ( that gossiping is the human equivalent of grooming , monkeys and primates attending and tending to each other by cleaning each other fur . He argues that it is an act of socializing , signaling the importance of ones partner . Furthermore , by gossiping , humans can communicate and share their representations about their social their friends and enemies are , what the right thing to do is under what circumstances , and so on . In so doing , they can regulate their social more friends and enlarging one own group ( often called the , the group to which one belongs ) against other groups ( that are more likely to be one enemies . Dunbar has argued that it is these social effects that have given humans an evolutionary advantage and larger brains , which , in turn , help humans to think more complex and abstract thoughts and , more important , maintain larger . Dunbar ( estimated an equation that predicts average group size of nonhuman primate genera from their average neocortex size ( the part of the brain that supports higher order cognition ) In line with his social brain hypothesis , Dunbar showed that those primate genera that have larger brains tend to live in larger groups . Furthermore , using the same equation , he was able to estimate the group size that human brains can support , which turned out to be about the size of modern gatherer communities . Dunbar argument is that language , brain , and human group living have and human sociality are inseparable . Dunbar hypothesis is controversial . Nonetheless , whether or not he is right , our everyday language use often ends up maintaining the existing structure of relationships . Language use can have implications for how we construe our social world . For one thing , there are subtle cues that people use to convey the extent to which someone action is just a special case in a particular context or a pattern that occurs across many and more like a character trait of the person . According to and ( someone action can be described by an action verb that describes a concrete action ( he runs ) a state verb that describes the actor psychological state ( he likes running ) an adjective that describes the actor personality ( he is athletic ) or a noun that describes the actor role ( he is an athlete ) Depending on whether a verb or an adjective ( or noun ) is used , speakers can convey the permanency and stability ofan actor tendency to act in a certain convey particularity , whereas adjectives convey permanency . Intriguingly , people tend to describe positive actions of their members using adjectives ( he is generous ) rather than verbs ( he gave a blind man some change ) and negative actions of members using adjectives ( he is cruel ) rather than verbs ( he kicked a dog ) and ( 1989 ) called this a linguistic bias , which can produce and reproduce the representation of relationships by painting a picture favoring the

Language and Language Use 289 . That is , members are , and ifthey do anything bad , that more an exception in special circumstances in contrast , members are typically bad , and if they do anything good , that more an exception . In addition , when people exchange . Emotion their gossip , it can spread through broader social networks . If gossip is transmitted from one person to another , the second person can transmit it to a third person , who then in turn transmits it to a fourth , and so on through a chain . This often emotive stories ( Box ) If gossip is repeatedly transmitted and spread , it can reach a large number of people . When stories travel through communication chains , they tend to become ( 1932 ) tale People tend to tell stories that evoke emotions ( Boca , 1991 ) Such emotive stories can then spread far and wide through peoples social networks . When a group of 33 psychology students visited a morgue ( no emotive experience for many ) they told their experience to about six people on average each of these who heard about it told one person , who in turn told another person on average . By retelling ofthe morgue visit , 881 had heard about this in their community within 10 days . If everyone in society is connected with one another by six degrees of separation ( Travers , 1969 ) and ifa chain ravel hundreds via the lnternet ( Klein , 2008 ) the possibility of emotive gossip traveling through a vast social network is not a fantasy . Indeed , urban evokes rong feelings of disgust tend to spread in cyberspace and become more prevalent on the Internet ( Heath , Bell , 2001 ) of the War of the Ghosts recounts a warrior encounter with ghosts traveling in canoes and his involvement with their ghostly battle . He is shot by an arrow but does die , returning home to tell the tale . After his narration , however , he becomes still , a black thing comes out of his mouth , and he eventually dies . When it was told to a student in England in the and retold from memory to another person , who , in turn , retold it to another and so on in a communication chain , the mythic tale became a story ofa young warrior going to a battlefield , in which canoes became boats , and the came out ofhis mouth became simply his spirit ( In other words , information transmitted multiple times was transformed to something that was easily understood by many , that is , information was assimilated into the common ground shared by most people in the linguistic community . More recently , Kashima ( conducted a similar experiment using a story that contained sequence of events that described a young couples interaction that included both stereotypical and actions ( a man watching sports on on Sunday a man vacuuming the house ) After the retelling of this story , much of the stereotypical information was dropped , and stereotypical information was more likely to be retained . Because stereotypes are part ofthe common ground shared by the community , this finding too suggests that conversational are likely to reproduce conventional

Language and Language Use 290 content . Psychological Consequences of Language Use What are the psychological consequences of language use ?

When people use language to describe an experience , their thoughts and feelings are profoundly shaped by the linguistic representation that they have produced rather than the original experience per se ( an ambiguous emotion and examined how people evaluated the displayed emotion . When people verbally explained why the target person was expressing a particular emotion , they tended to rememberthe person as feeling that emotion more when they simply labeled the emotion . Thus , constructing a linguistic representation of another person emotion apparently biased the speaker memory of that person emotion . Furthermore , linguistically labeling one own neural processes . When people linguistically labeled negative images , the brain structure that is critically involved in the processing of negative emotions such as activated when theywere them ( Potentially because of these effects of emotional experiences , linguistic reconstructions of negative life events can have some therapeutic effects on those who suffer from the traumatic experiences ( 1999 ) talking about negative past life events improved people psychological , butjust thinking ourown such about them worsened it . There are many other as in a conversation with a close friend we can examples of effects of language use on memory and a ' be decision making ( Kashima , 2008 )

Language and Language Use significant effect on their thoughts and action . This notion is often called hypothesis ( 1921 , given a description ofa man , Steven , as of the world ( varied job experience ) a strong family orientation , and social skills , how do you describe Steven ?

Do you think you can remember personality five days later ?

It will probably be difficult . But if you know Chinese and are reading about Steven in Chinese , as Hoffman , Lau , and Johnson ( showed , the chances are that you can remember him well . This is because English does not have a word to describe this kind of personality , whereas Chinese does ( shi giv ) This way , language you use can influence your cognition . In its strong form , it has been argued that language determines thought , but this is probably wrong . Language does not completely determine are far too flexible for habitual uses can influence our habit of thought and action . For instance , some linguistic practice seems to be associated even with cultural values and social institution . Pronoun drop is the case in point . Pronouns such as and you are used to speaker and listener of a speech in English . In an English sentence , these pronouns can not be dropped if they are used as the subject of a sentence . So , for instance , I went to the movie last night is fine , but Went to the movie last night is not in standard English . However , in 291 Box . Sa Hypothesis An example of evidence for hypothesis comes from a comparison between English and Mandarin Chinese speakers ( in horizontal terms . For instance , good times are ahead of us , or hardship can be left behind us . We can move a meeting forward or backward . Mandarin Chinese speakers use similar horizontal metaphors too , but also use vertical metaphors . So , for instance , the last month is called shang ge yue or above month , and the next month , xia ge yue or below month . lo put it differently , the arrow of time horizontally in English , but it can both horizontally and vertically in Chinese . Does language use affect English and Chinese of language ?

This is what ( 2000 ) found . First , English and Chinese speakers understanding of sentences that use a horizontal ( June comes before August ) did not differ very much . When they were first presented with a picture that implies a horizontal positioning ( the black worm is ahead of the white worm ) they could read and understand them faster than when they were presented with a picture that implies a vertical positioning ( eg , the black ball is above the white ball ) This implies that thinking about the horizontal positioning ( ahead or behind ) equally primed ( reminded ) both English and horizontal metaphor used in the sentence about time . However , English and Chinese speakers comprehension differed for statements that do not use a spatial metaphor such as August is lune . When primed with the vertical spatial positioning , Chinese speakers comprehended these statements faster , but English speakers more slowly , than when they were primed with the horizontal spatial positioning . Apparently , English speakers were not used to thinking about months in terms of the vertical line , above or below . Indeed , when they were trained to do so , their comprehension was similar to Chinese speakers ( see , 2011 , for recent review of related research )

Language and Language Use 292 other languages such as Japanese , pronouns can be , and in fact often are , dropped from sentences . It turned out that people living in those countries where pronoun drop languages are spoken tend to have more collectivistic values ( employees having greater loyalty toward their employers ) than those who use drop languages such as English ( It was argued that the explicit reference to you and I may remind speakers the distinction between the other , and the differentiation between individuals . Such a linguistic practice may act as a constant reminder of the cultural value , which , in turn , may encourage people to perform the linguistic practice . Conclusion Language and language use constitute a central ingredient of human psychology . Language is an essential tool that enables us to live the kind of life we do . Can you imagine a world in which machines are built , farms are cultivated , and goods and services are transported to our household without language ?

is it possible for us to make laws and regulations , negotiate contracts , and enforce agreements and settle disputes without talking ?

Much human civilization would have been possible without the human ability to develop and use language . Like the Tower of , language can divide humanity , and yet , the core includes the innate ability for language use . Whether we can use it wisely is a task before us in this globalized world .

Language and Language Use 293 Discussion Questions . In what sense is language use innate and learned ?

Is language a tool for thought or a tool for communication ?

What sorts of unintended consequences can language use bring to your psychological processes ?

Language and Language Use 294 Vocabulary Audience design Constructing utterances to suit the audience knowledge . Common ground Information that is shared by people who engage in a conversation . Group to which a person belongs . Lexicon Words and expressions . Linguistic bias A tendency for people to characterize positive things about their using more abstract expressions , but negative things about their using more abstract expressions . Group to which a person does not belong . Priming A stimulus presented to a person reminds him or her about other ideas associated with the stimulus . hypothesis The hypothesis that the language that people use determines their thoughts . Situation model A mental representation of an event , object , or situation constructed at the time of comprehending a linguistic description . Social brain hypothesis The hypothesis that the human brain has evolved , so that humans can maintain larger . Social networks Networks of social relationships among individuals through which information can travel .

Language and Language Use 295 Syntax Rules by which words are strung together to form sentences .

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