General Psychology An Introduction Chapter 1 The Origins of Psychology

Chapter The Origins of Psychology History of Psychology David Baker Heather This module provides an introduction and overview of the historical development of the science and practice of psychology in America . specialization within the field often makes it difficult to discern the common roots from which the field of psychology has evolved . By exploring this shared past , students will be better able to understand how psychology has developed into the discipline we know today . Learning Objectives Describe the precursors to the establishment of the science of psychology . Identify key individuals and events in the history ofAmerican psychology . Describe the rise of professional psychology in America . Develop a basic understanding of the processes of scientific development and change . Recognize the role ofwomen and people of color in the history ofAmerican psychology . Introduction It is always a difficult question to ask , where to begin to tell the story of the history of psychology . Some would start with ancient Greece others would look to a demarcation in the late the science proposed and two perspectives , and all that is in between , are appropriate for describing a history of psychology . The interested student will have no trouble finding an abundance of resources on all ofthese time frames and perspectives ( Goodwin , 201 , 2012 Schultz Schultz ,

History of Psychology ( For the purposes ofthis module , we will examine the development of psychology in America and use the century as our starting point . For the sake of convenience , we refer to this as a history of modern psychology . Psychology is an exciting field and the history of psychology offers the opportunity to make sense of how it has grown and developed . The history of psychology also provides perspective . Rather than a dry collection of names and dates , the history of psychology tells us about the important intersection of time and place that defines who we are . Consider what happens when you meet someone for the first time . The conversation The earliest records of a psychological usually begins with a series such as , Where Pharaoh did you grow Up ?

HOW long have you lived here ?

I of Egypt in the Century . Where did you go to school ?

The importance of history in defining who we are can not be understated . Whether you are seeing a physician , talking with a counselor , or applying for a job , everything begins with a history . The same is true for studying the history of psychology getting a history ofthe field helps to make sense we are and how we got here . A Prehistory of Psychology Precursors to American psychology can be found in philosophy and physiology . Philosophers such Locke ( and Thomas Reid ( promoted empiricism , the idea that all knowledge comes from experience . The work of Locke , Reid , and others emphasized the role of the human observer and the primacy of the senses in defining how the mind comes to acquire knowledge . In American colleges and universities in the early , these principles were taught as courses on mental and moral philosophy . Most often these courses taught about the mind based on the faculties of intellect , will , and the senses ( 2000 ) Physiology and Psychophysics Philosophical questions about the nature of mind and knowledge were matched in the century by ofthe ofthe human

History of Psychology physiologist Hermann von ( 821 894 ) measured the speed ofthe neural impulse and explored the physiology of hearing and vision . His work indicated that our senses can deceive us and are not a mirror of the external world . Such work showed that even though the human senses were fallible , the mind could be measured using the methods of science . In all , it suggested that a science of psychology was feasible . An important implication of work was that there is a psychological reality and a physical reality and that the two are not identical . This was not a new idea philosophers like john Locke had written extensively on the topic , and in the century , philosophical speculation about the nature of mind became subject to the rigors of science . The question of the relationship between the mental ( experiences of the senses ) and the material ( external reality ) was investigated by a number of German researchers including Ernst Weber and Gustav . Their work was called psychophysics , and it introduced methods for measuring the relationship between physical stimuli and human perception that would serve as the basis for the new science of psychology ( The formal development of modern psychology is usually credited to the work of German physician , physiologist , and philosopher Wilhelm ( helped to establish the field of experimental psychology by serving as a strong promoter of the idea that psychology could be an experimental field and by providing classes , textbooks , and a laboratory for training students . In 1875 , he joined the faculty at the University of and quickly began to make plans for the creation of a program of experimental psychology . In 1879 , he complemented his lectures on experimental psychology with a laboratory experience an event that has served as the popular date for the establishment ofthe science of psychology . The response to the new science was immediate and global . attracted students from around the world to study the new experimental psychology and work in his lab . Students were trained to offer detailed of their reactions to various stimuli , a procedure known as introspection . The goal was to identify the elements of consciousness . In addition to the study of sensation and perception , research was done on mental chronometry , more commonly known as reaction time . The work of and his students demonstrated that the mind could be measured and the nature of consciousness could be revealed through scientific means . It was an exciting proposition , and one that found great interest in America . After the opening of lab in 1879 , it took just four years for the first psychology laboratory to open in the United States ( Benjamin , 2007 ) Scientific Psychology Comes to the United States

History of Psychology version of psychology arrived in America most visibly through the work of Edward Bradford ( student , brought to America a brand of experimental psychology referred to as structuralism . were interested in the contents of the the mind is . For , the general adult mind was the proper focus for the new psychology , and he excluded from study those with mental deficiencies , children , and animals ( Experimental psychology spread rather rapidly throughout North America . By 1900 , there were more than 40 laboratories in the United States and Canada ( Psychology in America also organized early with the establishment of the American Psychological Association ( APA ) in 1892 . felt that this new organization did not adequately represent the interests of experimental psychology , so , in 1904 , he organized a group of colleagues to create what is now known Society ( Goodwin , times , women researchers were not invited ( or welcome ) It is interesting to note that a woman , Margaret ( Despite many barriers , in 1894 , became the first woman in America to earn a in psychology and , in 1921 , only the second woman to be elected president of the American Ca ' Striking a balance between the science and practice of psychology continues to this day . In 1988 , the American Psychological Society ( now known as the Association for Psychological Science ) was founded with the central mission of advancing psychological science . Toward a Functional Psychology While and his followers adhered to a structural psychology , others in America were pursuing different approaches . Stanley Hall , were among a group that became identified with Influenced by evolutionary theory , were interested in the activities of the the mind does . An interest in functionalism opened the way for the study of a wide range of approaches , including animal and comparative psychology ( is regarded as writing perhaps the most influential and important book in the field of psychology , Principles of Psychology , published in 1890 . Opposed to the reductionist ideas of , James proposed that consciousness is ongoing and continuous it can not be isolated and reduced to elements . consciousness helped us adapt to our environment in such ways as allowing us to make choices and have personal

History of Psychology responsibility over those choices . At Harvard , James occupied a position and respect in psychology and philosophy . Through his teaching and writing , he influenced psychology for generations . One of his students , Mary ( faced many of the challenges that confronted Margaret Floy and other women interested in pursuing graduate education in psychology . With much persistence , was able to study with James at Harvard . She eventually completed all the requirements for the doctoral degree , but Harvard refused to grant her a diploma because she was a woman . Despite these challenges , went on to become an accomplished researcher and the first woman elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1905 ( Stanley Hall ( made substantial and lasting contributions to the establishment of psychology in the United States . At Johns Hopkins University , he founded the first psychological laboratory in America in 1883 . In 1887 , he created the of psychology in America , of Psychology . In 1892 , he founded the American Psychological Association ( APA ) in 1909 , he invited and hosted Freud at Clark University ( the Freud visited America ) Influenced by evolutionary theory , Hall was interested in the process of adaptation and human development . Using surveys and questionnaires to study children , Hall wrote extensively on child development and education . While graduate education in psychology was restricted for women in Hall time , it was all but for African Americans . In another first , Hall mentored Francis Cecil Sumner ( who , in 1920 , became the first African American to earn a in psychology in America ( James ( received his with but quickly turned his interests to the assessment of individual differences . Influenced by the work of cousin , Frances , believed that mental abilities such as intelligence were inherited and could be measured using mental tests . Like , he believed society was better served by identifying those with superior intelligence and supported efforts to encourage them to reproduce . Such beliefs were associated with eugenics ( the promotion of selective breeding ) and fueled early debates about the contributions of heredity and environment in defining who we are . At Columbia University , developed a department of psychology that became world famous also promoting psychological science through advocacy and as a publisher of and reference works ( 1987 , 1980 ) The Growth of Psychology Throughout the first half of the century , psychology continued to grow and flourish in

History of Psychology America . It was large enough to accommodate varying points of view on the nature of mind and behavior . Gestalt psychology is a good example . The Gestalt movement began in Germany with the work of Max ( Opposed to the reductionist approach laboratory psychology , his colleagues Kurt ( 1941 ) Wolfgang ( and Kurt ( believed that studying the whole of any experience was richer than studying individual aspects of that experience . The saying the whole is greater than the sum of its parts is a Gestalt perspective . Consider that a melody is an additional element beyond the collection of notes that comprise it . The Gestalt psychologists proposed that the mind often processes information simultaneously rather than sequentially . For instance , when you look at a photograph , you see a whole image , not just a collection of pixels of color . Using Gestalt principles , and his colleagues also explored the nature of learning and thinking . Most of the German Gestalt psychologists and were forced to flee the Nazi regime due to the threats posed on both academic and personal freedoms . In America , they were able to introduce a new audience to the Gestalt perspective , demonstrating how it could be applied to perception and learning ( Behaviorism emerged early in the century and became a major force in American psychology . Championed by psychologists such as John Watson ( and Skinner ( behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology . Through the scientific study of behavior , it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior . Russian physiologist Ivan ( influenced early behaviorism in America . His work on conditioned learning , popularly referred to as classical conditioning , provided support for the notion that learning and behavior were controlled by events in the environment and could be explained with no reference to mind or consciousness ( behaviorism psychology . began to human it neglected mental processes . The turn toward a cognitive psychology was not new . In the , British psychologist Frederic ( explored the idea of the constructive mind , recognizing that people use their past experiences to construct in which to understand new experiences . Some of the major pioneers in American cognitive psychology ( Roger Brown ( and George Miller ( In the , conducted pioneering studies on cognitive aspects of sensation and perception . Brown conducted original research on language and memory , coined the term flashbulb memory , and figured out how to study the phenomenon

History of Psychology ( Miller research on working memory is legendary . His 1956 paper The Magic Number Seven , Plus or Minus Two Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing is one ofthe most highly cited papers in psychology . A popular interpretation of Miller research was that the number of bits of information an average human can hold in working memory is . Around the same time , the study of computer science was growing and was used as an analogy to explore and understand how the mind works . The work of Miller and others in the 19505 and has inspired tremendous interest in cognition and neuroscience , both of which dominate much of contemporary American psychology . Applied Psychology in America In America , there has always been an interest in the application of psychology to everyday life . Mental testing is an important example . Modern intelligence tests were developed by the French ( 91 ) His goal was to develop a test that would identify schoolchildren in need of educational support . His test , which included tasks of reasoning and problem solving , was introduced in the United States by Henry Goddard ( 957 ) and later standardized by Lewis ( at Stanford University . The assessment and meaning of intelligence has fueled debates in American psychology and society for nearly 100 years . Much of this is captured in the debate that raises questions about the relative contributions ( Applied psychology was not limited to mental testing . What psychologists were learning in their laboratories was applied in many settings including the military , business , industry , and education . The early century was witness to rapid advances in applied psychology . Hugo ( of Harvard University made contributions to such areas as employee selection , eyewitness testimony , and psychotherapy . Walter Scott ( and Harry ( produced original work on the psychology and marketing . Lillian ( was a pioneer in industrial psychology and engineering psychology . Working with her husband , Frank , they promoted the use of time and motion studies to improve efficiency in industry . Lillian also brought the efficiency movement to the home , designing kitchens and appliances including the trashcan and refrigerator door shelving . Their psychology of efficiency also found plenty at home with their 12 children . The experience served as the inspiration for the movie Cheaper by the 0019 ( Clinical psychology was also an early application of experimental psychology in America . received his in experimental psychology with Wilhelm and returned to the University of Pennsylvania , where he opened a psychological clinic

History of Psychology in 1896 . believed that because psychology dealt with the study of sensation and perception , it should be of value in treating children with learning and behavioral problems . He is credited as the founder of both clinical and school psychology ( Benjamin Baker , 2004 ) Psychology as a Profession As the roles of psychologists and the needs ofthe public continued to change , it was necessary for psychology to begin to define itself as a profession . Without standards for training and practice , anyone could use the title psychologist and offer services to the public . As early as 1917 , applied psychologists organized to create standards for education , training , and licensure . By the , these efforts led to the creation of the American Association for Applied Psychology ( While the American Psychological Association ( APA ) represented the interests psychologists , served those in education , industry , consulting , and clinical work . The advent of changed everything . The psychiatric casualties of war were staggering , and there were simply not enough mental health professionals to meet the need . Recognizing the shortage , the federal government urged the and APA to work together to meet the mental health needs ofthe nation . The result was the merging of the and the APA and a focus on the training of professional psychologists . Through the provisions of National Mental Health Act of 1946 , funding was made available that allowed the APA , the Veterans Administration , and the Public Health Service to work together to develop training programs that would produce clinical psychologists . These efforts led to the convening of the Boulder Conference on Graduate Education in Clinical Psychology in 1949 in Boulder , Colorado . The meeting launched doctoral training in psychology and gave us the model of training . Similar meetings also helped launch doctoral training programs in counseling and school psychology . Throughout the second half of the century , alternatives to Boulder have been debated . In 1973 , the Vail Conference on Professional Training in Psychology proposed the model and the . degree ( Doctor of Psychology ) It is a training model that emphasizes clinical training and practice that has become more common ( Baker , in press ) Psychology and Society Given that psychology deals with the human condition , it is not surprising that psychologists would involve themselves in social issues . For more than a century , psychology and psychologists have been agents of social action and change . Using the methods and tools of science , psychologists have challenged assumptions , stereotypes , and stigma . Founded in

History of Psychology 1936 , the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues ( has supported research and action on a wide range of social issues . Individually , there have been many psychologists whose efforts have promoted social change . Helen Thompson ( and ( 939 ) were pioneers in research on the psychology of sex differences . Working in the early century , when women rights were marginalized , Thompson examined the assumption that women were overemotional compared to men and found that emotion did not influence women decisions any more than it did men . found that menstruation did not negatively impact women cognitive or motor abilities . Such work harmful stereotypes and showed that psychological research could contribute to 5003 ' Among the first generation of African American psychologists , Mamie Clark ( 1983 ) and her husband Kenneth Clark ( studied the psychology of race and demonstrated the ways in which school segregation negatively impacted the of African American children . Their research was influential in the 1954 Supreme Court ruling in the case of Brown Board of Education , which ended school segregation ( In psychology , greater advocacy for issues impacting the African American community were advanced by the creation of the Association of Black Psychologists ( in 1968 . In 1957 , psychologist Evelyn Hooker ( 996 ) published the paper The Adjustment ofthe Male Overt Homosexual , reporting on her research that showed no significant differences in psychological adjustment between homosexual and heterosexual men . Her research helped to homosexuality and contributed to the decision by the American Psychiatric Association to remove homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 1973 ( Garnets , 2003 ) Conclusion Growth and expansion have been a constant in American psychology . In the latter part ofthe century , areas such as social , developmental , and personality psychology made major contributions to our understanding of what it means to be human . Today neuroscience is enjoying tremendous interest and growth . As mentioned at the beginning of the module , it is a challenge to cover all the history of psychology in such a short space . Errors of omission and commission are likely in such a selective review . The history of psychology helps to set a stage upon which the story of psychology can be told . This brief summary provides some glimpse into the depth and rich content offered by the history of psychology . The modules in this are all

History of Psychology 14 on the foundation created by our shared past . It is hoped that you will be able to see these connections and have a greater understanding and appreciation for both the unity and diversity of the field of psychology . Timeline Rise emphasizing centrality of human observer in acquiring knowledge measures neural impulse Psychophysics studied by Weber 1859 Publication of Darwin Origin 1879 opens lab for experimental psychology 1883 First psychology lab opens in the United States 1887 First American is published 1890 publishes Principles of Psychology 892 APA established 894 Margaret Floy is first woman to earn in psychology 904 Founding of 905 Mary is first woman president 909 Freud only visit to the United States 913 Watson calls for a psychology of behavior 920 Francis Cecil Sumner is first African American to earn in psychology 921 Margaret Floy is second woman president of APA Creation and growth of the American Association for Applied Psychology ( Gestalt psychology comes to America

History of Psychology Founding of The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues Behaviorism dominates American psychology 1946 National Mental Health Act 1949 Boulder Conference on Graduate Education in Clinical Psychology Cognitive psychology gains popularity 1954 Brown Board of Education 1957 Evelyn Hooker publishes The Adjustment ofthe Male Overt Homosexual 1968 Founding ofthe Association of Black Psychologists 1973 . proposed at the Vail Conference on Professional Training in Psychology 1988 Founding of the American Psychological Society ( now known as the Association for Psychological Science )

History of Psychology Outside Resources Podcast History of Psychology Podcast Series Web Advances in the History of Psychology Web Center for the History of Psychology Web Classics in the History of Psychology Web Feminist Voices Web This Week in the History of Psychology Discussion Questions . Why was psychophysics important to the development of psychology as a science ?

How have psychologists participated in the advancement of social issues ?

Name some ways in which psychology began to be applied to the general public and everyday problems . Describe functionalism and structuralism and their influences on behaviorism and cognitive psychology .

History of Psychology Vocabulary Behaviorism The study of behavior . Cognitive psychology The study of mental processes . Consciousness Awareness of ourselves and our environment . Empiricism The belief that knowledge comes from experience . Eugenics The practice of selective breeding to promote desired traits . Flashbulb memory A highly detailed and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event . Functionalism A school of American psychology that focused on the utility of consciousness . Gestalt psychology An attempt to study the unity of experience . Individual differences Ways in which people differ in terms oftheir behavior , emotion , cognition , and development . introspection A method of focusing on internal processes . Neural impulse An signal that enables neurons to communicate . Model A model of professional psychologists that emphasizes clinical practice .

History of Psychology Psychophysics Study of the relationships between physical stimuli and the perception of those stimuli . Realism A point of view that emphasizes the importance of the senses in providing knowledge ofthe external world . model A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills . Structuralism A school of American psychology that sought to describe the elements of conscious experience . phenomenon The inability to pull a word from memory even though there is the sensation that that word is available .

History of Psychology References Benjamin , 2007 ) A psychology . MA Publishing . Benjamin , 2000 ) The psychology laboratory at the turn of the century . American Psychologist , 55 , Benjamin , Baker , 2004 ) From to science A history of the profession of psychology in America . Belmont , CA Learning . Baker , in press ) A history of education and training in professional psychology . In Johnson ( Oxford handbook of education and training in professional psychology . New York , NY Oxford University Press . Evans , 1972 ) and his lost ofthe History ofthe Behavioral Sciences , 1987 ) The intelligence men Makers of the IQ controversy . New York , NY Norton Company . Rutherford , A . 201 ) Pioneers A history ( New York , NY Norton Company . 2000 ) Contributions ofAmerican mental philosophers to the United States . History of Psychology , Garnets , 2003 ) What a light it shed The life of Evelyn Hooker . In Garnets ( Psychological perspectives on gay , lesbian , and bisexual experiences ( New York , NY Columbia University Press . Goodwin , 201 ) A history psychology ( Wiley . Goodwin , 1985 ) On the origins of of the History of the Behavioral Sciences , 21 , Guthrie , 2003 ) Even the rat was white A historical view ( Boston , MA Bacon . 201 ) A history From antiquity to modernity ( Upper Saddle River , Pearson Education . 1987 ) The untold lives American women psychologists . New York , NY Columbia University Press . Schultz , 2007 ) A history of modern psychology ( Stanford , Learning . 1980 ) Science . Science , 209 ,

History of Psychology 20 , 1909 ) A . New York , NY Macmillan . 1938 ) Gestalt theory . In Ellis ( Ed . A source book of Gestalt psychology ( New York , NY .