Gender & Sexuality Studies Women and Environmental Politics Luhui Whitebear

WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS You island , death ?

Anointed ( 2018 ) In the crossroads of life and death for living beings on earth , there is a clear path to ensuring that life , and a path that leads to destruction . Far too many times the path of consumption and tion is chosen , with devastating consequences for people and the earth . In resistance to this choice , women raise strong voices in helping the world understand the dangers that lie ahead . This chapter brings in some of these voices to explain the ways in which women and girls have been involved in environmental politics . The work they are involved with is personal , based in their cultural understandings of the earth , and on behalf of all life . Their stories are powerful coupled with conversations , they lead us to understanding the root causes of the global environmental crisis in which we all currently live . Understanding Terminology Environmental politics refers to the ways in which humans interact with the natural world , and how these interactions are shaped by rules , customs , and policies . Environmental politics are determined by our identities , our cultures , and the types of systems in which we live . In many times and places , these systems have been affected by the process of settler colonialism . Settler colonialism occurs when an outside society moves to a new area with the intent of replacing existing societal customs , norms , and governing systems ( Tuck and Yang 2012 , Settler colonialism has occurred throughout history and in all parts of the world , including the , China , the Nordic tries , the Philippines , Siberia , Singapore , and , just as a few examples . But how it is depends on who is colonizing and the Indigenous communities that are colonized . The use of and inferiority are discussed further throughout this chapter . Possibly more familiar examples of settler colonizing include British , Dutch , French , Portuguese , and Spanish in Australia , New Zealand , North and South America , the Islands , and African countries such as Algeria , the Congo , and South Africa . Yet the argument that settler colonization is a

278 WOMEN AND process is often used to normalize the continued occupations and of Indigenous peoples . An example of settler colonialism Settler colonial societies are heavily reliant on , in which men assert a voice of authority and control , a process of systematic power . Women are generally disadvantaged in these systems and limited in their ability to policies that govern their lives and the environments in which they live . Note in this chapter the terms woman and women always include trans women . Little Miss Flint by Jones Mari , also known as Little Miss Flint , entered the public eye in 2016 when she helped bring Lana exposure to the water crisis in her community of Flint , Michigan . In 2014 the City of Flint changed its water source from the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department ( which provided treated water ) to the Flint River . Since City officials did not apply proper treatment procedures to the Flint River water , from April Little Miss Flint

WOMEN AND 279 2014 through 2019 , citizens dealt with murky water contaminated with lead and Legionnaires disease . Fed with the lack of res from cit officials , Mari wrote a letter to resident Barack Obama outlining the crisis and asking for help . President Obama replied to her letter and brought national and federal awareness to the issue . Unfortunately , local officials and the media that the water was safe and that residents were bein . These narratives , cou led with the city inaction , led the Michigan Civil Rights Commission to declare the poor governmental response a result of systemic Today , Little Miss Flint ( a nickname Mari earned after she won a beauty pageant in 2015 but has become synonymous with her social justice work ) continues to speak out about the Flint water crisis and other social justice issues , such as former President Trump immigration . Since settler colonial systems rely on the replacement of existing societies , Indigenous practices are also missed or disregarded by those who govern the settler colonial societies . land practices are grounded in local knowledge of lands , waters , animals , and plants that have been passed down orally through generations , predating settler colonial . The practices are sometimes referred to as traditional ecological knowledge ( TEK ) TEK is more than practices it is knowledge based in traditional stories , often protected by Indigenous communities as a way to prevent exploitation by colonial societies . TEK is not the focus of this chapter but an important part of land practices . Because settler colonialism relies on the continued dispossession of Indigenous people from their original lands and waters , land practices are viewed as alternative , decorative , or simply in tion to colonial practices . Also at odds with land practices is frontier capitalism , in which previously areas are moved into for economically uses ( usually at odds with sustainability ) such as clearing of forests for agricultural land or drilling for oil . explains that frontiers are where the confusion of boundaries between law and theft , governance and violence , usage and tion , public and private , and discipline and wilderness facilitate capitalist proliferation ( 2012 , 464 ) Frontier capitalism relies on these confusions to capitalize on Indigenous lands and waters with little regard for the impact on the Indigenous peoples of those areas .

280 i WOMEN AND POLiTiCS Frontier Capitalism A Casein Point Lockhart An example of the misuse of lands for at the expense of Indigenous people is the island of , in the , which was mined by British and Australian for hos hate , with industrial uses . The mining has rendered most of the small island uninhabitable , disrupted local culture , and left the people highly dependent on foreign aid . Since only the coastline is still inhabitable , as climate change causes sea levels to rise , the Environmental inhabitants are increasingly vulnerable . of phosphate mining on The primary goal of frontier capitalism is , fueled by the of lands , waters , and ies at the expense of Indigenous peoples , who have often been pushed into areas that become new tiers . The impacts of pollution and labor exploitation are and include minimal pay , child labor , high exposure to factory pollutants , and sexual violence . Reproductive health is also affected , often from pollutants that lead to infertility , birth defects , and higher rates of cancer . Frontier capitalism relies on these types of in what settler societies call backward area in which they impose the will to civilise the ethnic other , bringing them into order ( 2012 , 466 ) Since it is an extension of settler colonialism , connections to lands and waters are also severed by frontier capitalism . Settler colonial systems seek to replace Indigenous inhabitants and to extract resources . Those who feel the impacts the most are Indigenous people . Globally , Indigenous people have watched settler societies treat their lands and waters like frontiers to conquer , tame , and exploit . Indigenous relationships with lands suffer , as do other forms of life . The extractive the valuable based on on as much of the resources as possible , no matter the cost . Today , Indigenous people have been on the front lines of opposing climate change that has resulted from unsustainable settler practices , ing farming , plantations , metal and mineral mining , drilling , logging , and other deplete the soil , lead to runoff , and release toxic substances into the air , water , and soil . Indigenous people have also been on the front lines of resistance . As Leanne Simpson states , Indigenous peoples have extremely rich anticapitalist practices in our own histories and current realities ( Simpson 2017 , 72 ) The loss of those relationships with lands and waters as well as our ability to live in balance are

WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL I 281 not worth the gained by settler societies , especially since those who pay the price are Indigenous people . These issues serve as a guide to understanding the complexities of environmental politics as well as the role of women in them . Understanding that we all have a stake in the Future of environmental politics and that some communities have more to lose sooner than others serves as a reminder of the crossroads we are in . in Environmental Politics Once we understand that environmental politics include both how humans interact with the natural world and how policies shape these interactions , the treatment of Indigenous people in environmental politics can not be overlooked . As outlined throughout this chapter , Indigenous people have traditional and ancestral knowledge about maintaining a relationship with the earth . These relationships are not based on margins , exploitation of resources , and control of lands and waters they are based on teachings that allow Indigenous people to coexist with the natural world and to ensure Future generations are able to do the same . These relationships are not in alignment with settler colonial practices . Environmental laws and policies in place throughout the world have been constructed and decided upon by settler nations that is , those peoples who have moved into an area already occupied and taken it over For their own occupation and use . The impacts on Indigenous people and future generations have not historically been taken into consideration . Even activism and other movements that work for change to address the climate crisis operate within the settler framework plans and policies are constructed by those who from the colonization . Nixon ( 2015 ) asserts that Colonialism and capitalism , which Fuel resource extraction and environmental contamination , are an attack on both Indigenous lands and Indigenous peoples It is to Fully bring concerns about environmental impacts of settler policies into conversations for change because these systems were made to exclude Indigenous voices . As Bacon ( 2019 ) emphasizes This structure relies on forces of both cultivation ( programs , policies , and discourses promoting settler expansion ) and discipline ( organizations which generate and enforce prohibitions on land access and use ) which shape relations in ways that meet settler interests at the expense of Native peoples . 53 ) The relations described by Bacon have been constructed primarily by white , men . Indigenous women voices , especially , are silenced by relations owing to the ways in which capitalism has been constructed in settler nations .

282 I WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS Settler on Environmental Politics Capitalism , Globalization , and Exploitation In , Ina , ohn and ean describe how ca affects ethnic cultures . The a a eo le of southern Africa elder the im act of economics on the continuation of ture , stating , If we have nothing of ourselves to sell , does it mean that we have no culture ?

and further , If this is so , then who are we ?

and 2009 , 10 ) This speaks truth into the ways in which cultures have been affected by capitalism and globalization . The bring in Indigenous voices from Africa and North America to show not only how culture is shaped by colonialism , but also how relationships with natural resources used for cultural materials have changed . For example , they discuss how basket materials ( and the stories that go along with them ) have changed in some instances to allow for faster production of goods to sell to tourists traveling through Indigenous communities . The relationships and the connections with these materials have been . As a result , traditional stories are not passed down either . Relationships with lands and waters are transformed when the top priority is determining what can be extracted . writes that in , Rubber plantations and land concessions were as the key strategies to transform the economy from its traditional subsistence base towards a one ( 2012 , 468 ) The generated from these plantations do not return to the local people , however , but to the investors . What remains in the local community is the exploitation of labor , where the people suffer from poor working conditions and low pay . The lands and waters are transformed to meet an industrialized use that contaminates them . Industrial contamination of land in Haiti

WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL I 283 The exploitation of lands , waters , and Indigenous labor is heavily and controlled by settler nations , either directly or through foreign investment . Bacon describes the resulting structures as forms of violence . Bacon writes , because settler colonialism fundamental goal is the ongoing of Indigenous land and resources by and for the of settlers it is an especially important lens for thinking about relations ( Bacon 2019 , 59 ) In many instances , Indigenous peoples are dispossessed from lands as well as limited from access to sacred sites and cultural materials so that can be generated . These are by settler colonial views of land management ( something to be used or consumed ) rather than Indigenous land relationships . While it is not possible to discuss the full impacts of capitalism , globalization , and exploitation by settler nations in this chapter , understanding this work helps us think critically about the ways in which environmental politics have been shaped in recent times . Innovative Approach to Sustainability Involve Women by Shannon The United Nations UN notes that with the right support and , Africa is well positioned to largely skip the polluting stage of electrical production and move straight to renewable solar and wind energy . Large portions of most African countries still do not have power , but solar kits are now enabling women to access cheap power for themselves and their they refer their friends . The program aims to increase jobs and leadership opportunities for African women in the renewable energy sector . Recent efforts in Southeast Asia are involving women in efforts to reduce , reuse , and recycle plastic waste . Some women in China , Indonesia , and Vietnam are committing to a lifestyle , and a small Indonesian company combines cement with mulched plastic waste to make Mercy , a member of the House of Representatives of Indonesia , calls for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations to involve women in , as they are involved at every stage of producing , ing , and recycling plastics . In 2019 the Ocean Conservancy recognized the importance of women roles in their report Role in Mam .

284 WOMEN AND Further , understanding that women have usually not held positions of systemic power in settler nations means that it has been largely men ( predominately white ) that have shaped these and the ways in which we experience environmental politics . The United States and other nations are not exceptions . Rather , they are prime examples . Colonialism as Present Tense On a global scale , Indigenous people have been continually pushed and moved to areas undesirable for development . Their labor has been consumed as a resource along with the lands and waters what can be described as extraction and exploitation . and Frans describe colonial tion as a net transfer of economically valuable resources from I to metropolitan societies , and colonial exploitation as the practices and procedures facilitating the extraction of resources without adequate compensation to I peoples and their natural environment ( and 2013 , Resource extraction that pollutes air and water Their comparison of the Belgian Congo in Africa and the Netherlands Indies ( also called the Dutch East Indies , now Indonesia ) offers a look at the impacts of these colonial actions by Europeans . encroachment and the use of lands for farming and mining in the twentieth century depleted lands for other uses and posed threats to the local communities culturally and physically , in the forms of , forced labor , and sexual exploitation . They describe the Belgian Congo and the Netherlands Indies as being among the most effectively exploited colonies of the modern era ( and 2013 , But the impacts of settler colonialism are felt in many other parts of the world .

WOMEN AND 285 The disruption of women leadership and management of subsistence economies often subjects women to sex work , sex trafficking , sexual violence , and sexually transmitted diseases ( Whitmore 2012 ) when mostly male groups move in to take control of lands and resources . These rises are conclusively linked to colonial extraction of resources in Brazil , Burma , India , New Guinea , the Philippines , and many other places in which Indigenous people are subjected to settler colonialism at the hands of industrialized countries . For example , Australia , Canada , China , the United Kingdom , and the United States own the largest ing interests in , home of the and Indigenous people of the Philippines ( more 2012 ) These countries mining and removal of gold , copper , and other minerals themselves , and this exploitation leaves lasting environmental and social impacts on the Indigenous people . Examples of the impacts on Indigenous people around the world are numerous . Logging requires the building of roads , which disrupts the local ecosystem , including wildlife habitat and water quality . The logging itself leaves soil vulnerable to erosion , kills or displaces native wildlife , introduces invasive species , reduces the uptake of carbon dioxide by trees and other plants , and interferes with the natural life cycle of the forests . Similar effects occur with and agriculture . Effects of logging in Australia Human systems are also affected , from loss of natural resources they depend on for subsistence , to forced removal from their homelands , to vulnerability to diseases brought in by the outsiders who extract the resources , to loss of autonomy and power over their own lives , to outright physical and sexual violence , and even genocide .

286 WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS Man Camps by Jones Man camps are temporary lodgings , generally mobile homes or other modular housing , that pop up near remote areas where valuable resources are being extracted from the earth ( such as the Keystone Pipeline project ) for economic gain . While this setup is to the extractive organization ( such as a corporation ) because it requires fewer resources to support their mostly male workforce , it wreaks havoc on the local communities , particularly Indigenous communities . Man camps drastically increase the population of an area and cause a strain on community ture such as law enforcement and other resources . The increased male population also brings with it an increase in crime and sexual violence , taking the forms of sexual assault , rape , and sex have negatively affected Indigenous women and girls . The Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls ( campaign is one example of an attempt to bring awareness to this issue . Visit USA ( and Who Is She Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women campaign ( for more information . The end result is the communities are left with the traumas of settler impacts , pounded by ongoing occupation of their lands . Settler nations work in a network of who controls the resources and who is . The power imbalances created have direct environmental and societal impacts . Under the guise of growth and advancement , settler nations create ways to absolve selves of the harm caused to Indigenous people , lands , and waters . The United States as a Settler Colonial Nation Roxanne ( 2014 ) asserts , The affirmation of democracy requires denial of colonialism , but denying it does not make it go away ( 116 ) This statement the origin story of the United as a settler nation it assumed its own superiority over well as its actions with Indigenous people on a global scale . At the heart of her statement is a call to recognize that the United States is a settler colonial nation , formed by exploiting Indigenous people and Indigenous lands to create a new society . Indigenous people have been subjected to the traumas of displacement , broken treaties , destruction and pollution of their homelands , diseases and health issues , violent , and genocide as a result .

WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS I 287 The United States did not stop colonial exploitation of lands and peoples within the geopolitical borders of the country . One of the ways it continues its colonial reach is by designating islands as territories . The Indigenous people of these territories do not have the right to vote on matters that affect them or their lands and waters . Rather , they have been expected to obediently relocate or be gracious hosts to military occupation . The nuclear bomb testing in the Marshall Islands is one example of the extent of this exploitation . Between 1946 and 1958 , the United States conducted 67 nuclear tests in the Marshall Islands ( Atomic Heritage Foundation , Although the majority of the tests occurred at Bikini Atoll and Atoll , all of the Marshall Islands suffered the effects of nuclear fallout . In the announcement of the forced relocation of the people , they were told their island homelands would be used for the good of mankind , with promise of their return . health impacts , which include cancers and health issues , affect the people to this day . Despite the promise , to return now means to face fish and other food sources contaminated with radiation , and to be exposed to radiation at dangerous levels themselves . Nuclear bomb detonation on a island The bombing of the Marshall Islands did not end in 1958 . In February 2020 , the US Air Force launched an unarmed missile from Air Force Base ( California ) to Atoll to test the accuracy and reliability of their weapons system . What many people do not know is that Air Force Base is on the lands of the people , who have largely been deprived of their rights by colonization . Because of this occupation , burial and cultural sites on the base are not accessible to the people . This militarized occupation of their unceded lands connects the people to the ple and their lands by more than the missile launches .

288 I WOMEN AND The Western State Legal Foundation stated These tests contaminated both the land and people of the Marshall Islands , and both nuclear testing and continued military activities have resulted in the forced removal of the local people from their ancestral homes . Like , has become a facility , its radars and other supporting a variety of missile defense interceptor launches and other military tests . 2006 , The impacts on lands , waters , and peoples span generations . Like the offshore oil drilling that threatens shorelines and the Channel Islands with little regard to how the people are affected , completes military tests on lands . The traumatic 2020 missile test serves as a reminder to both the and people that their lands are occupied by the United States , and that what happens on their lands is decided by . Exploitation includes more than the presence of military bases and nuclear testing on Indigenous lands . The Human Rights Commission ( states that despite restricting military assistance in 1977 , the United States played a major role in supporting dictators in military training , reputed to include torture and assassination , at the former School of the Americas ( 2013 ) at Fort Benning , Georgia . Despite knowing these dictators were responsible for genocide of Indigenous people in during the and , the United States continued to train them , which led to the militarization of . The massacres and displacement of the Indigenous peoples of the United States directly . Indigenous resistance to land and labor exploitation is interrupted by attacks on these peoples . For example , in their fact sheet , the discuss the violation rights at based company Del Monte Foods banana plantations ( 2009 ) Not only are Indigenous people dispossessed of lands in order for the plantations to exist , but they receive minimal what may be their only source of experience poor work conditions that have led to death . nous people have died so the United States and other developed countries can have access to bananas . Additionally , natural resource extraction is part of the colonizing of by the United States and other developed nations . As described above , militarization played a major role in clearing land and ing the doors of exploitation in . Even while peace accords were negotiated in 1996 to help end armed , the door was opened further to transnational mining companies ( Solano , Moore , and Moore 2020 , For example , Associates ( a metal mining company , faced resistance from Indigenous people referring to themselves as La to cease their operations . The majority of those

WOMEN AND POLiTiCS i 289 leading the efforts of La are women . The concerns of Indigenous communities are and related to water scarcity and the health impacts of mining ( Solano , Moore , and Moore 2020 , 11 ) Despite this resistance , however , militarized attacks on peaceful protesters allowed to start in 2014 ( Moore and Moore 2020 ) Two years later , was ordered to suspend operations for not consulting properly with Indigenous people . While this was a temporary victory , has taken the government to court , suing them for more than 400 million in an effort to continue their mining operations ( Solano , Moore , and Moore 2020 , Equity and Sustainable Fashion ay Ramona Flores With trends evolving rapidly , many fast fashion companies routinely cut corners to meet and production margins , often at the expense of the environment and the workers . Organizations like the Centre for Sustainable Fashion , located in London , conduct research around sustainability and fashion while providing education about sweatshop exploitation and excessive industrial Waste . Organizations like WRAP focus on packaging and waste reduction by working with large Companies like , Google , and Nestle to Work toward systemic change . The push for ability in clothing and other lifestyle products has garnered a larger public audience , with celebrities like Ellen promoting different causes and products via social media . Many companies that sell fast fashion , including Fashion Nova , exploit migrant workers from their United workshops and label their clothes Made in As Forbes explains , this label prompts the buyer to make untrue assumptions about the ethical practices that went into the creation of the garment . Contrary to these assumptions , these fast fashion companies pay an average of per hour . The rise of the menstrual equity movement has led to the creation and manufacturing ofa variety of sustainable menstrual products . Such products include the menstrual cup , underwear made to absorb menstrual blood , and biodegradable pads and tampons . In the larger conversation about environmentalism , incorporating necessary menstrual products is a key part of the shift toward sustainability , especially when tampons and pads can exist for hundreds of years after their brief use . Sustainability not only has to include what is worn externally but also all aspects oflife , from menstrual products to food packaging .

290 WOMEN AND This action disregards the requests of the local Indigenous people and their concerns about water and health . It is a clear exertion of systematic power for a US mining company to sue the government of another country . These are just two examples of the role of the United States as a colonial force in , and while the United States does offer some relief aid to , these efforts do not equate to justice for the Indigenous peoples of . Rather , they are a to a deep wound the United States has played a role in causing , which continues today . These are among the many ways in which the United States from or is directly involved with colonization . Harking back to quote , refusing to acknowledge the United States as a settler colonial nation helps clothe its actions in the guise of democracy , but the reality remains . Settler colonial nations continue to colonize and extract resources in order to gain more systematic power and control . The United States is not separate from this , but rather an example of what colonization looks like , historically and in the present . Impacts As a settler colonial nation , the United States enacts laws and policies that will itself above others . Land and labor exploitation have more than immediate impacts , however . For example , the climate crisis is an effect of the ongoing disregard for knowledge and land practices in an assertion of colonial superiority , the right to use lands and labor to its own . The people feel the generational health impacts from radiation exposure . But they still live in the area even though the lands and food are not safe anymore . The peoples bodies are further and traumatized , attesting to the effects of war perpetrated by the United States . In , the local Indigenous people continue to face violence and external exploitation of their lands . The quantity and quality of water are threatened in order to extract resources , both in mines and on food plantations . In this , the peoples bodies are put on the line for larger . In both cases , Indigenous ple pay the most immediate price . But the actions of the United States and other industrialized countries affect all parts of the world . Just as the radiation is not isolated to the Marshall Islands , the effects of actions that increase the carbon load are not isolated to local areas . The impacts are global . The Union of Concerned Scientists ( lists the United States as one of the top contributors to carbon dioxide emissions , which make up the majority of greenhouse gases ( 2020 ) Further , the Environmental Protection Agency ( that in the United States , human activity is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions ( These are the result of consumerism and capitalism , and the downplaying of the severity of climate change by the US government .

WOMEN AND POLiTiCS i 291 Cristina , Conservation Photographer by Sarah Baum Sometimes , life takes us to places we could never expect yet places us right where we need to be . This happened to conservationist photographer Cristina . Trained as a scientist with a degree in biochemical engineering , she expected her life work to be preserving ocean biodiversity . Instead , her life took a turn down an unexpected path . After working with Conservation International for several years , she took a trip to the Amazon to research an Indigenous region . While there , she took a few photos . When the trip ended , the Houston Museum of Natural Sciences requested materials for an ian art exhibit . When attended the exhibit , she found one of her photographs displayed but credited to her husband . You know , I felt that little sting ofwhat it feels like to lose your copyright , she says . And I decided to take it seriously , so I went back to school for And take it seriously she did , learning her craft and art to become one of the world most skilled photographers . From behind her lens , she tells the story of the wilderness of the world around us and the places that are disappearing quickly due to climate change and exploitation . And while her capture stunning moments and tell beautiful stories , didn stop there . She went on to become a translator , copy editor , photo editor , and eventually an editor of more than books on conservation issues . Next , she helped found the International League of Conservation , which raises money for conservation issues . Her roots in marine biology also called her to . Even with all her efforts , she continues to produce breathtaking photographs of our disappearing wild planet . But it all started with a leap of faith into a new direction . Whenever I feel a little fear , then I know I in the right place , she says . You often have to step out ofyour comfort zone , and feel a little uncomfortable to know that you re creating an image that a different perspective or a new way that maybe other people haven looked at The US government system has been dominated by wealthier , white , older men since the founding of the country . As Bacon writes , Since the wealth and power of the United State as a state is grounded in the ongoing occupation of Indigenous lands , I consider settler always in with other forms of primary force shaping relations in this country ( Bacon 2019 , 60 ) This is reflected in US policy and actions on climate change . Climate change first entered the political versation in the United States in the 19503 , yet little action has been taken to address it since then , either through federal regulations or involvement on a global scale . Despite former President Bill Clinton

292 I WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS ing the Kyoto Protocol to signify a commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions , the United States has never this international treaty , meaning the United States is not a formal party to it . Further , in 2020 , former president Donald Trump formally withdrew the United States from the Paris Agreement , a next step to the Kyoto Protocol . Although the United States has since rejoined the Paris Agreement under President , the political performances of those in the highest of the United States to the world its priority of dominating over addressing the climate crisis . Global emissions have an impact on all life on the planet yet have not been taken seriously by the United States . The United States more from continued exploitation of lands and waters than it does from international policies that limit corporations like Del Monte Foods and . In fact , the majority of affecting US climate policy is done by corporations , in opposition to actions . For ple , the major lobbying efforts by corporations in 2009 were against the American Clean Energy Security Act , also known as the Act . Corporations spent more than 700 million in lobbying to defeat the bill in Congress ( Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago 2019 ) Indigenous and other climate justice activists do not have this level of resources to spend in ing to support climate bills . The Politics of Race , Gender , and Frontline Resistance The of Indigenous Communities Indigenous people have always been viewed as other to . That is part of how colonization works to go to a land and view one own customs , beliefs , and political systems as superior to the nous ones . This superiority the displacement of Indigenous peoples to make way for settlers and settler systems . This is not a process of the past colonization is ongoing . The goal is to spread , maintain control , and from the lands that are being colonized as a result , Indigenous people to be . This also violence toward Indigenous bodies , which become something to be used or consumed . For example , Tara describes the ways in which some bodies are marked for violence in India because of their aesthetic difference from the idealized of a normatively body to hold a rightful place in a Hindu family , a microcosm for the nation ( 2016 , 154 ) While is discussing the 2012 Delhi gang rape of a woman , these types of ings are not limited to this single case or this single country . As asserts , the psychic and symbolic associations made between darkness and deviance can not be separated from colonial discourses ( 2016 , 154 ) Indigenous bodies , especially darker bodies and women bodies , are viewed as deserving of

WOMEN AND 293 violence and exploitation . It is easy justification to take advantage of something that is not worthy of . Leah Thomas , Environmentalist by Jones Leah Thomas , a Black female from the States , coined the term intersectional to acknowledge how justice , equity , and inclusion are crucial to saving both the planet and its peoples . She created the concept in May 2020 after the murder of George Floyd , a Black man killed in , Minnesota by Derek , a white police officer . Her post on had the sentence Environmentalists for Black Lives Matter repeating across viral and helped to connect social justice issues to environmental conversations during a time when people were asking where social justice conversations could be conducted . The intersectional environmentalist collective tackles environmental issues through an intersectional lens , identifying the ways in which injustices affecting marginalized communities Mother Earth are interconnected , and working to overcome all types of oppression . The construction of the other also has implications for Indigenous women leadership . For example , Indian scholar and environmental activist Shiva has worked for decades on protecting farming and seed cultivation in India to lower dependence on fossil fuels and industrial agriculture . Her efforts include a lawsuit against , the largest seed patentor and supplier of seeds in the world . But the Genetic Literacy Project ( a US organization that uses the slogan Science Not Ideology , uses the guise of facts to discredit Shiva work ( The project is heavily funded by US foundations controlled by white men . The project criticisms of Shiva include the claim that she is , describing her as an , deep ecology and radical activist who promotes land redistribution , I and peasant farmers rights , food productions and ayurvedic health practices over conventional medicines ( 2021 ) These statements are resented as facts , not as biases in favor of western science and industrial . The also assert colonial dominance the know what is best for India re if an one from the Genetic Literacy Project has ever been there or contributed to the of their Indigenous ple . In this situation , we see white , men from a settler colonial nation declare that their voice is superior .

294 WOMEN AND This is not an isolated example . When Indigenous people stand up to corporations , time and again , they are described as backward , behind the times , or . These stereotypes extend to other Indigenous people , and those who perpetuate them do not consider the of following Indigenous land practices . It is not until western science validates Indigenous practices that settler colonial societies consider them valid . Saving the Global South as Settler Colonialism Because other Indigenous women , there is an assumption that Indigenous women do not know what is needed to face issues in their communities . Chandra ( 2003 ) discusses the ways in which Third World women are situated In terms of underdevelopment , oppressive traditions , high illiteracy , rural and urban poverty , religious fanaticism , and overpopulation of particular Asian , African , Middle Eastern , and Latin American tries . Corresponding analyses of matriarchal lack women on welfare , illiterate ers , and docile Asian domestic workers also abound in the context of the United States . Besides being on a white , Western ( read modern ) or ( read traditional ) archy , these analyses freeze Third World women in time , space , and history . description is helpful in understanding the systemic power dynamics that are created when using the United States and other industrialized countries as a standard by which to judge other countries . The roles of women and their sense of in these countries are also compared to those of women from the United States . This comparison continues to other women from Third World countries . The term women is used to signal a universal understanding that these women do not have the same privileges constructed by assumptions about Western women as secular , liberated , and having control over their own lives ( 2003 , 42 ) also reminds us that without the construction of Third World women , there would be no ( singular and privileged ) First World ( 2003 , 42 ) It is from this First World privilege that women from Third World countries are viewed as needing saving from their lesser conditions . Like other colonial countries , the United States presents itself as a standard of an ideal nation . Third World has been used to describe countries that are not industrialized or do not operate from a capitalistic framework . In more recent times , the term Global South has been used in an attempt to shift away from a hierarchal view of countries ( and the people from them ) The problem is that generalization still occurs and is a construction of others based on the Global North , which is composed primarily of colonial nations . The poor conditions of women in the Global South are based on comparisons with the excess accumulation and consumerism in the Global North .

WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS I 295 The experiences of women in the top socioeconomic classes are used to reinforce superiority and to describe experiences in the Global North as less problematic . Often , this is framed as at least it isn as bad as in insert country . This supposed superiority is a reflection of colonial systems , and pertinent issues may be decided by women from colonial nations . Women from the affected countries are often not involved in processes . Women and girls have been addressing disparities and injustices in their own lands , however . Often , they are acting on behalf of their own people and understand the connections between their experiences of and impacts on the environment . A gathering for families of missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls Frontline Women and Girls of Resistance Many women and girls have been on the front lines of resistance to continued exploitation and damage to their traditional lands . In a global sense , these stories map out a theme of protection of waters and lands for future generations . The stories highlighted here join the many stories before them , creating a much larger story of resistance to settler colonialism environmental impacts on Indigenous communities . Readers are encouraged to continue to learn more about these women and girls . Autumn is the chief water protector for the Nation in Canada . As a teen , she addressed the United Nations , urging for the protection of clean water for all people ( Gallant 2021 ) resists the impacts of extractive oil pipeline companies on water safety and advocates for access to clean water for First Nations communities ( Indigenous nations in Canada ) as well as other Indigenous communities around the world ( News 2016 ) Her work is based in her teachings and understandings of living in balance with the earth , to ensure that future generations also have access to water .

296 WOMEN AND Greta is a Swedish climate activist who began what became a global School Strike for Climate ( Haynes 2019 ) She advocates at an international level for governments to reduce carbon emissions to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement . is open about having Asperger syndrome , which prompted people in positions of systemic power to question whether she was capable of writing her own testament to the power of her words . Like Autumn , addressed the United Nations as a teen . She calls for world leaders to examine the ways in which laws and policies affect the climate , to ensure the existence of future generations . Kathy is a poet , performer , educator , and environmental justice activist . She brings forth the experiences of frontline Island communities that are facing the immediate impacts of climate change on their islands . centers her work on her Indigenous teachings and with the ocean and islands . She the organization ( to help youth engage with environmental justice work to protect their islands from climate change and to help heal their communities from the effects of nuclear bombing . 2018 ) has also addressed the United Nations , where her poetry conveyed the effects of climate change on the Marshall Islands to the rest of the world . was a environmental and political activist who in 1977 started the Green Belt Movement ( an environmental organization known primarily for helping women in Kenya grow seeds and plant trees as a way to help restore the environment as well as provide food , and a small income . has also addressed the United Nations several times and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004 for her efforts in creating sustainable futures . was a environmental activist and leader for her people in Honduras . was a frontline defender and a cofounder of the Council of Popular and Indigenous of Honduras ( She was a leader in resistance to illegal logging , plantations , and the construction of the Agua Dam on the River . resistance was grounded in her Indigenous teachings about relationships with lands and waters as well as her concern about the negative environmental impacts on her people . She received the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2015 . In a backlash to her efforts , was assassinated in 2016 . Trask was a ( Native i ) poet , educator , and activist who also based her work on her Indigenous In Flores teachings . She first became involved with environmental justice in the , during the resistance to the bomb testing on the island

WOMEN AND 297 of . Her efforts focused on i sovereignty as a way to assert rightful protection of the i Islands . As such , she emphasized the environmental impacts of tourism , military presence , and settler exploitation of land . She died , 2021 ( 2021 ) is an Indigenous , disabled woman from Nepal . As the general secretary of the Indigenous Persons with Disabilities Global Network ( 2021 ) she focuses on the intersections of genders , disabilities , and the environment . Her efforts include advocating for culturally appropriate access to supplies , food , and medical needs during the pandemic . She has also worked for relief for climate disasters , access to clean water , and stronger inclusion of Indigenous peoples with disabilities in climate justice work and policies . is a Sami climate activist from Finland ( 2018 ) She serves as adviser to the dent of the Sami Parliament , bringing Sami concerns to the United Nations as part of the Indigenous Delegation . uses her Indigenous teachings and experiences with reindeer to assess the impacts of climate change on her people . Her efforts include intervening against encroachment on winter grazing lands by the logging industry and addressing policies that decide what happen to Sami people and lands by settler nations ( Finland , Norway , Russia , and Sweden ) Along with other Sami women , she brings a collective voice to help other nations understand the impacts of climate change on Sami people , culture , and lands . Rivera is a activist from Peru who focuses on Indigenous rights in relation to environmental and women rights . In 1986 , founded the organization ( which now addresses food security and food sovereignty for Indigenous people of the Andes and Amazon . Led by Indigenous women , work strives to help restore relationships with the environment based on Indigenous teachings and agricultural practices , while also responding to the impacts of climate change . Tara is a First Nations tribal attorney and climate activist from the United States who works toward environmental justice . was a frontline defender during the Standing Rock Movement in North Dakota and the efforts to end Line tar sands pipeline ( Stop Fossil Fuels , She was the former campaign director for Honor the Earth and served as the adviser on Native American Affairs to US Senator Bernie Sanders . grounds her work in her teachings and relationships with lands and waters .

298 I WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS Women at the Forefront of Environmentalism by Rebecca Lambert When you think of environmental activists , who comes to mind ?

You might think of Greta , the teenager from Sweden who challenges politicians to seriously consider and craft solutions for the mate crisis . How many other women can you name that are working on environmental issues ?

Women have long been a part of the fight for environmental justice , and there are many more to know . Shiva is an scholar , activist , and environmental advocate who is widely known for her activism against ( genetically organisms ) Shiva also wrote the foundational text , which examines the connection between patriarchal oppression and environmental destruction . West African , from the Gambia , is known as the Queen of Plastic She worked with a group of women from her village , and they began to make purses from the plethora of plastic bags plaguing the village . Her environmental efforts also support the economic empowerment of women , as she is a cofounder of the Women Initiative Gambia , which works with women in poverty to help them build skills and tools to increase their income . But these are just a few of the women engaging in innovative environmental work . As part of your learning , out more about other activists such as Isabel Flores , Winona , and Vanessa . Learn more about the issues they raise and how you can support their efforts . Indigenous Women in The women and girls described in this section are doing powerful work . They are from both the Global North and the Global South , yet their work is united with a common goal of environmental justice , and climate necessary to ensure the health of the planet for future generations . Yet the majority of these women and girls are still through systemic oppression and a focus on the Global North . In some cases , their efforts are considered accessory to the movement . While not all are white , efforts have operated largely from leadership and uphold settler systems of control . Nicole Morse and Daniella remind us that Some scholars are justifiably critiqued for furthering the project of appropriating Indigenous cultures and that is distinct from Indigenous because of its roots in Western European culture ( Morse and 2020 ) Morse and argue that is often

WOMEN AND POLITICS 299 treated as an to bring nature into conversations about oppression Indigenous women involved in environmental politics are often used as an aesthetic to without a closer examination of their unique experiences . Lindsay Nixon ( 2015 ) argues If truly want to engage with Indigenous feminism to legitimize their own movements , they must first engage with their own and privilege as settlers a on which the of and the ongoing genocide of Indigenous peoples are prefaced . Furthermore , Indigenous peoples don need savior feminists defining what strategies must be used to address mental contamination within Indigenous communities . Environmental violence has far reaching including those that can be seen in the reproductive lives of Indigenous peoples . What Indigenous feminists want from is simple Sit down , be quiet , and listen . Indigenous women can not be used as romantic stories to inspire or to remind of ancient earth connections . Their leadership must be understood as central to environmental politics . Conclusion of Resistance Indigenous women on the front lines represent a threat to white supremacy , the privileged Global North , and systems of domination . Indigenous women on the front lines are viewed as a direct threat to the entire system . In the face of resistance , women are silenced by the media and literally through death , as evidenced by the murder of . Frontline resistance asks for systemic change . It asks for policies to center the needs of earth and all life , not margins . It asks for laws to be upheld to protect the interests of the people rather than be used as a tool of colonial control . Frontline resistance is , it is raced , and it looks beyond the privileges of the elite . Frontline resistance happens in homes , on farms , in the streets , in the mountains , on islands , on tribal lands , in between extractive machines and sacred sites , at the United Nations , on the steps of ment buildings , and on the floors of senate buildings . Frontline resistance does not separate the personal and the political . Too much is at stake to separate the two , and Indigenous women are on the front lines around the world . Where Do We Go from Here ?

By this point , two things should be clear ( environmental politics have been largely controlled by settler colonial nations , and ( major change must happen . The question then becomes , Where do we go from here ?

There are many thoughts around what it would mean to return lands to Indigenous peoples . There is also much hesitation of what this would mean for settler nations .

300 WOMEN AND POLiTiCS The piece missing from these conversations is that return of lands also means return to traditional land and water practices and relationships . Those relationships are the most important piece , not control in a settler sense . It is hard for many to imagine what a return to traditional relationships can look like , but it is possible . A key component is understanding that these relationship can not be taken apart and reshaped to conform to settler systems . They need to be led by Indigenous people with the concerns of Indigenous people at the heart of . Environmental Education , Activism , and Policies Succeed by Shannon In 1948 , Costa disbanded its military in favor of investing in its people . As it invested in education , health care , human rights , and other culturally stabilizing efforts , it created growth . After World War II , the World Bank and big businesses teamed up to mine resources and grow cattle ( cheap beef ) for export to US fast food chains . Unfortunately , this also meant massive loans and deforestation to small and nations . After two decades of pillaging its tropical rain forests ( 85 percent was forested until the 19405 ) the Costa Ricans revolted against international exploitation and in the late passed aggressive measures to protect and reclaim the natural beauty of their land . Costa offered grants and cash incentives to grow native crops and reforest . Costa is now the only country to regrow most ofits rain forests ( from 21 percent in 1990 to 52 cent in 2005 ) and it is home to percent of all global biodiversity . Costa Rican scientists have preserved much of the nation ( over 25 percent is nature preserves ) and it is a gathering place for and scientists alike . Because Costa implemented policies and invested in education decades before any other nations , it is out of sync with most of the current economic and environmental goals of the global community . pay farmers on the value of their land for the future . From 2000 to 2005 , nous farm ownership increased by 100 percent , and female ownership grew from 200 to farms . Costa boasts the lowest poverty rates and South America , but economic growth has also slowed in the past decade . It begs the questions When has a country arrived at appropriate and intersectional policies ?

Is it reasonable that gross domestic product must always grow ?

In a First World Third World mentality , what about Costa ?

Today , as conservatives and progressives posture inside the country and under international categories and pressure , arguing whether its policies were worth it , we hope Costa can continue its bold WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS I 301 toward sustainable and symbiotic living between humans and nature , and out the next steps as an example for other nations to follow . The alternative is to continue down a path that has led to major climate disruptions and environmental catastrophe . The decisions being made today are not sustainable for the health of the planet or for the life that exists on it , including human life . Those on the front line are doing incredible work to help their thrive as best they can in the current conditions . They also show the rest of the world what is possible . By breaking away from a settler colonial lens , we can learn from these frontline women and girls about leadership , hope , and direction for positive change . As poet and reminds us in his Thanksgiving speech We are foolish if we believe that we will destroy the world . Man has the ability to destroy all the people ability to live on the earth , but we do not have the power to destroy the earth . The earth will heal itself . The earth will purify itself ofus . lfit takes a billion years to get rid of the radiation , the earth will do it , because the earth has that kind ofa time . We do not . Third Eye 2017 ) At another crossroad of about the future of environmental politics , we must remember these words and what is at stake with the choices we make . These choices go beyond the individual and must include systematic change . Despite the ways settler colonial systems have us , we have the power to create change . Women have a voice and the ability to create changes to environmental politics in ways that can improve the situations of peoples around the world .

302 i WOMEN AND POLiTiCS Learning Activities . argues that the United States continues to settler colonial nation . How does she support her argument ?

Contemporary conversations about US settler colonialism often focus on the past , rather than the present . How does change the conversation when she examples ?

Explain the term Third women . Why is it problematic ?

How does transnational feminism vide the theories and concepts to problematize terms and concepts like Third World women ?

As notes , women and girls have been on the front lines of resistance to continued exploitation and damage to their traditional provides examples of women and girls such as Autumn , Greta , Kathy , Trask , Rivera , and Tara . ing alone , with a partner , or in a small group , choose one of these and conduct some online research on her . What do you learn about your individual ?

How is she on the front lines ?

What actions is she taking ?

What are the responses of her detractors ?

concludes the chapter by asking , Where do we go from here ?

How does she answer that question ?

Using the terms and concepts you ve learned in this chapter , what other ideas can you add ?

Working in a small group , add these key terms to your glossary environmental politics , settler , traditional ecological knowledge ( TEK ) frontier capitalism , colonial colonial exploitation , Third World women .

WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS I 303 References , Tara . 2016 . Sexual Politics and Postcolonial . Demeter Press . Atomic Heritage Foundation . Marshall Accessed December , News . 2016 . Autumn Talks YouTube video , December , Bacon , 2019 . Settler Colonialism as Structure and the Production of Colonial Ecological Environmental Sociology , no . Accessed November 14 , John , and Jean . 2009 . Ethnicity , Chicago University of Chicago Press . de de Honduras . Accessed November 14 , Roxanne . 2014 . An of the United States . Boston Beacon Press . Environmental Protection Agency . Sources of Greenhouse Gas Accessed December , Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago . 2019 . Lessons Learned from the Last Major . Climate Bill Lobbying Takes Its May 28 , and Frans . 2013 . Colonial Exploitation and Economic Development . London . Gallant , David Joseph . 2021 . Autumn Canadian Encyclopedia . Updated October 25 , Human Rights Commission . 2009 . Accessed December , 201 . 2013 . Militarization in Accessed December ,

304 WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS . Genetic Literacy Project . Genetic Literacy Project Accessed November 14 , 2021 . Shiva Rock Star of Protest Movement Has December , Green Belt Movement . What Accessed November 14 , Haynes , 2019 . Students from Walked Out of School to Protest Climate Change . It Could Be Greta Biggest Strike Time . May 24 , Anita . 2021 . Native Hawaiian Educator and Activist Trask Civil Beat . July , Indigenous Persons with Disabilities Global Network . 2021 . The Indigenous World 2021 Indigenous Persons with Disabilities Global March 18 , Kathy . 2018 . YouTube video , April 15 , watch ?

Accessed November 14 , 2012 . Frontier Capitalism and the Expansion of Rubber Plantations in of Studies 43 , no . Andrew . 2006 . Force Base Where the Future of US . Come Together . Oakland , CA Western States Legal Foundation . Chandra . 2003 . Borders Theory , Duke University Press . Moore , Jen , and Ellen Moore . 2020 . When Police Repression Is Not Enough A . Corporation Is Suing to Crush Local Mining . September 18 ,

WOMEN AND 305 Morse , Nicole , and Daniella . 2020 . No One Is Disposable and Climate In Persistence Is Resistance of Gender , Women und Sexuality Studies , edited by Julie . Seattle University of Washington Press . Sonia . 2018 . Finland Sami Women Fight Climate Global Voices . March , Nixon , Lindsay . 2015 . Appropriations of Indigenous and Environmental Feminist Wire . April 30 , Simpson , Leann . 2017 . As Hove Always Done Indigenous Freedom Resistance . University of Minnesota Press . Solano , Luis , Ellen Moore , and Jen Moore . 2020 . Mining Injustice through International Arbitration Countering , Associates Claims over a Project in works Institute for Policy Studies . August 24 , Stop Fossil Fuels . Standing Rock and Accessed November 14 , I 80 ble . Third Eye . 2017 . Take Back the Earth The Empowering Speech of Native American Rights Defender John July , Tuck , Eve , and Wayne Yang . 2012 . Is Not a , Education and Society , no . Union of Concerned Scientists . 2020 . Each Country Share Updated August 12 , Whitmore , Andy , ed . 2012 . and Indigenous Peoples and . hagen International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs .

306 WOMEN AND Image alem , Oregon by is licensed under Children Scavenge for Valuables in Garbage Dump in Haiti by United Nations Photo is licensed under Photo by Singh from Managed Destruction by is licensed under Photo by from Gathering for families of missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls by Gov is licensed under bertha memoria by graphics is available under Island by ARM Climate Research is licensed under Little Miss Flint ( Mari ) Leads the March from the Science Stage to the Capitol , April . 2018 pro by is licensed under Notes . Subsistence agriculture is that type in which families or communities produce foods and other goods needed primarily for their own survival , perhaps with a small surplus to trade , rather than primarily for . Most and nonindustrial farmers worldwide subsistence farmers .