Gender & Sexuality Studies Unit II Challenging Binary Systems and Constructions of Difference

UNIT II CHALLENGING BINARY SYSTEMS AND CONSTRUCTIONS OE DIFFERENCE Unit II Challenging Binary Systems and Constructions of Difference 25 Introduction Binary Systems Black and white . Masculine and feminine . Rich and poor . Straight and gay . and disabled . are social constructs composed of two parts that are framed as absolute and unchanging opposites . Binary systems reflect the integration of these oppositional ideas into our culture . This results in an exaggeration of differences between social groups until they seem to have nothing in common . An example of this is the phrase men are from Mars , women are from Ideas of men and women being complete opposites invite simplistic comparisons that rely on stereotypes men are practical , women are emotional men are strong , women are weak men lead , women support . Binary notions mask the complicated realities and variety in the realm of social identity . They also erase the existence of individuals , such as multiracial or people and people with gender identities , who may identify with neither of the assumed categories or with multiple categories . We know very well that men have emotions and that women have physical strength , but a binary perspective of gender men and women to have nothing in common . They are defined against each other men are defined , in part , as not women and women as not men . Thus , our understandings of men are influenced by our understandings of women . Rather than seeing aspects of identity like race , gender , class , ability , and sexuality as containing only two dichotomous , opposing categories , multiple various identities allows us to examine how men and women , Black and white , may not be so completely different after all , and how varied and complex identities and lives can be . Introduction Binary Systems 27

The Sexuality System The phrase system , or system was coined by Gayle Rubin ( 1984 ) to describe , the set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological sexuality into products of human activity . That is , Rubin proposed that the links between biological sex , social gender , and sexual attraction are products of culture . Gender is , in this case , the social product that we attach to notions of biological sex . In our heteronormative culture , everyone is assumed to be heterosexual ( attracted to men if you are a woman attracted to women if you are a man ) until stated otherwise . People make assumptions about how others should act in social life , and to whom they should be attracted , based on their perceptions of outward bodily appearance , which is assumed to represent biological sex characteristics ( chromosomes , hormones , secondary sex characteristics and genitalia ) Rubin questioned the biological determinist argument that suggested all people assigned female at birth will identify as women and be attracted to men . According to a biological determinist view , where biology is destiny , this is the way nature intended . However , this view fails to account for human intervention . As human beings , we have an impact on the social arrangements of society . Social believe that many things we typically leave unquestioned as conventional ways of life actually reflect and power relationships between groups of people , which are reproduced in part through socialization processes , where we learn conventional ways of thinking and behaving from our families and communities . Just because people bear children does not necessarily mean that they are always by definition the best caretakers of those children or that they have natural instincts that people lack . I I I . I ' Kid Girl Doll Child Expression Cute Face Baby by Max Pixel is in the Public Domain For instance , the arrangement of women caring for children has a historical legacy ( which we will discuss more in 28 The System

the section on labor markets ) We see not only mothers but other women too caring for children daycare workers , nannies , elementary school teachers , and babysitters . What these jobs have in common is that they are all very occupations AND that this work is economically undervalued . These people do not get paid very well . One study found that , in New York City , parking lot attendants , on average , make more money than childcare workers ( and , 2002 ) Because mothering is not seen as work , but as a woman natural behavior , she is not compensated in a way that reflects how difficult the work is . If you have ever babysat for a full day , go ahead and multiply that by eighteen years and then try to make the argument that it is not work . Men can do this work just as well as women , but there are no similar cultural dictates that say they should . On top of that , some suggest that if paid caretakers were mostly men , then they would make much more money . In fact , men working in occupations actually earn more and gain promotions faster than women . This phenomenon is referred to as the glass escalator . This example illustrates how , as social constructionist Abby ( 2009 ) argues , social systems produce differences between men and women , and not the reverse . The System 29

Gender and Sex Transgender and A binary gender perspective assumes that only men and women exist , obscuring gender diversity and erasing the existence of people who do not identify as men or women . A assumption in our culture is that someone assigned female at birth will identify as a woman and that all women were assigned female at birth . While this is true for ( or cis ) who identify in accordance with their gender is not the case for everyone . Some people assigned male at birth identify as women , some people assigned female identify as men , and some people identify as neither women not men . This illustrates the difference between , gender assignment , which doctors place on infants ( and fetuses ) based on the appearance of genitalia , and gender identity , which one about oneself . The existence of transgender people , or individuals who do not identify with the gender they were assigned at birth , challenges the very idea of a single identity . For example , trans women , women whose bodies were assigned male and who identify as women , show us that not all women are born with bodies . The fact that trans people exist contests the biological determinist argument that biological sex predicts gender identity . Transgender people may or may not have surgeries or hormone therapies to change their physical bodies , but in many cases they experience a change in their social gender identities . Some people who do not identify as men or women may identify as , gender , or , for example . Some may use pronouns , such as or , rather than the pronouns or . As pronouns and gender identities are not visible on the body , trans communities have created procedures for communicating gender pronouns , which consists of verbally asking and stating one pronouns ( 2013 ) The existence of sex variations fundamentally challenges the notion of a binary biological sex . describes variation in sex characteristics , such as chromosomes , gonads , sex hormones , or genitals . The bodies of individuals with sex characteristics variations do not fit typical definitions of what is culturally considered male or , like female and male , is a socially constructed category that humans have created to label bodies that they view as different from those they would classify as distinctly female or The term basically marks existing biological variation among bodies bodies are not essentially just call them intersex . The term is slightly misleading because it may suggest that people have complete sets of what would be called male and female reproductive systems , but those kinds of human bodies do not actually exist intersex really just refers to biological variation . The term hermaphrodite is therefore inappropriate for referring to intersex , and it also is derogatory . There are a number of specific biological sex variations . For example , having one and more than one chromosome is called Syndrome . Does the presence of more than one mean that the person is female ?

Does the presence of a mean that the person is male ?

These individuals are neither clearly male or female they are . Some people have genitalia that others consider ambiguous . This is not as uncommon as you might think . The Society of North America estimated that some of people have sex is births a year . So , why is this knowledge not commonly known ?

Many individuals born with genitalia not easily classified as male or female are subject to genital surgeries during infancy , childhood , adulthood which aim to change this visible ambiguity . Surgeons reduce the size of the genitals of infants they want to make look more typically female and less masculine in infants with genital appendages smaller than centimeters they reduce the size and assign them female ( 1998 ) In each instance , surgeons literally construct and reconstruct individuals bodies to fit into the dominant , binary gender system . While parents and doctors justify this practice as in the best interest of the child , many people experience these surgeries and their social treatment as traumatic , as they are typically performed without patients knowledge of their sex variation or consent . Individuals often discover their chromosomal makeup , surgical records , intersex status in their medical records as adults , after years of physicians hiding this information from them . The surgeries do not necessarily make bodies appear natural , due to scar tissue and at times , disfigurement medical problems and chronic infection . The surgeries can also result in psychological distress . In addition , many of these surgeries involve sterilization , which can be understood as part 30 Gender and Sex Transgender and

of eugenics projects , which aim to eliminate intersex people . Therefore , a great deal of shame , secrecy , and betrayal surround the surgeries . activists began organizing in North America in the to stop these surgical practices and to fight for intersex health care . Broader international efforts emerged next , and Europe has seen more success than the first wave of . In 2008 , of Germany was the first person in the world to successfully sue the surgeon who removed her internal reproductive organs without her knowledge or consent ( International Commission of Jurists , 2008 ) In 2015 , became the first country to implement a law to make these kinds of surgeries illegal and protect people with sex variations as well as gender variations ( 2015 ) Accord Alliance is the most prominent intersex focused organization in the they offer information and recommendations to physicians and families , but they focus primarily on improving standards of care rather than advocating for legal change . Due to the efforts of intersex activists , the practice of performing surgeries on children is becoming less common in favor of waiting and allowing children to make their own decisions about their bodies . However , there is little research on how regularly surgeries are still performed in the , and as Accord Alliance standards of care have yet to be fully implemented by a single institution , we can expect that the surgeries are still being performed . The concepts of transgender and intersex are easy to confuse , but these terms refer to very different identities . To review , transgender people experience a social process of gender change , while intersex people have biological characteristics that do not fit with the dominant gender system . One term refers to social gender ( transgender ) and one term refers to biological sex ( intersex ) While transgender people challenge our binary ( ideas of gender , intersex people challenge our binary ( ideas of biological sex . Gender theorists , such as Judith Butler and Gayle Rubin , have challenged the very notion that there is an underlying sex to a person , arguing that sex , too , is socially constructed . This is revealed in different definitions of sex throughout history in law and sex composed of genitalia ?

Is it just genetic ?

A combination of the two ?

Various social institutions , such as courts , have not come to a consistent or conclusive way to define sex , and the term sex has been differentially defined throughout the history of law in the United States . In this way , we can understand the biological designations of male and female as social constructions that reinforce the binary construction of men and women . Gender and Sex Transgender and intersex I 31

As discussed in the section on social construction , heterosexuality is no more and no less natural than gay sexuality or bisexuality , for instance . As was shown , and medical heterosexuality and its boundaries . This definition of the parameters of heterosexuality is an expression of power that constructs what types of sexuality are considered normal and which types of sexuality are considered Situated , cultural norms define what is considered Defining sexual desire and relations between women and men as acceptable and normal means defining all sexual desire and expression outside that parameter as deviant . However , even within sexual relations between men and women , cultural norms associated with heterosexuality dictate what is normal or As a quick thought exercise , think of some words for women who have many sexual partners and then , do the same for men who have many sexual partners the results will be quite different . So , within the field of sexuality we can see power in relations along lines of gender and sexual orientation ( and race , class , age , and ability as well ) Adrienne Rich ( 1980 ) called heterosexuality compulsory , meaning that in our culture all people are assumed to be heterosexual and society is full of both formal and informal that encourage heterosexuality and penalize sexual variation . Compulsory heterosexuality plays an important role in reproducing inequality in the lives of sexual minorities . Just look at laws in a few states , such as Indiana , joint adoptions are illegal for gay men and lesbians ( Lambda Legal ) Gay men and lesbians have lost custody battles over children due to fear , hatred , or prejudice against gay people ( Pershing , 1994 ) Media depictions of gay men and lesbians are few and often negatively stereotyped . There are few out gay athletes in the top three men professional , baseball , and the fact that , statistically , there are very likely to be many ( 2010 ) Many religious groups openly exclude and discriminate against gay men and lesbians . Additionally , structures the everyday , ways in which heterosexuality is privileged and normalized . For instance , sociologist Karen Martin studied what parents say to their children about sexuality and reproduction , and found that with children as young as three and five years old , parents routinely assumed their children were heterosexual , told them they would get ( married , and interpreted interactions between children as signs of heterosexuality ( Martin 2009 ) In this kind of socialization is an additional element of normative idea of compulsory monogamy , where exclusive romantic and sexual relationships and marriage are expected and valued over other kinds of relationships ( Willey 2016 ) Therefore , surrounds us at a very young age , teaching us that there are only two genders and that we are or should desire and partner with one person of the opposite gender , who we will marry . Just like gender , sexuality is neither binary nor fixed . There are straight people and gay people , but people are also bisexual , pansexual , queer , and , to name a few additional sexual identities . Also , sexual attraction , sexual relations and relationships , and sexual identity can shift over a person lifetime . As there are more than two genders , are more than two kinds of people to be attracted to and individuals can be attracted to and can relate sexually to multiple people of different genders at once ! Another common misconception is that not all transgender people are sexually queer . This belief may stem from the acronym that lists transgender people along with lesbians , gay men , and bisexuals . A trans man who previously identified as a lesbian may still be attracted to women and may identify as straight , or may identify as queer . Another trans man may be attracted to other men and identify as gay or queer . This multiplicity suggests that the culturally dominant binary model fails to accurately encapsulate the wide variety of sexual and gender lived experiences . 32

Another concept that troubles the gender binary is the idea of multiple ( 2005 ) suggests that there is more than one kind of masculinity and what is considered masculine differs by race , class , ethnicity , sexuality , and gender . For example , being knowledgeable about computers might be understood as masculine because it can help a person accumulate income and wealth , and we consider wealth to be masculine . However , computer knowledge only translates into masculinity for certain men . While an , man might get a boost in masculinity points ( as it were ) for his job with computers , the same might not be true for a white man whose desk job may be seen as a weakness to his masculinity by other class men . Expectations for masculinity differ by age what it means to be a man at 19 is very different than what it means to be a man at 70 . Therefore , masculinity intersects with other identities and expectations change accordingly . Judith ( Jack ) used the concept of female masculinity to describe the ways people may accomplish masculinity ( 2005 ) defines masculinity as the connection between maleness and power , which people access through performances , butch identity ( where people appear and act masculine and may or may not identify as women ) or trans identity . Separating masculinity from bodies illustrates how performative it is , such that masculinity is accomplished in interactions and not ordained by nature . 33

Race Concepts of race did not exist prior to racism . Instead , it is inequality and oppression that have produced the idea of essential racial differences ( 2009 176 ) In the context of the United States , there is a binary understanding of race as either Black or white . This is not to say that only two races are recognized , just to say that these are the constructed oppositional poles of race . What do we mean by race ?

What does Abby in the quote above mean by race ?

More than just descriptive of skin color or physical attributes , in constructions of race , race determines intelligence , sexuality , strength , motivation , and These ideas are not only held by racists , but are woven into the fabric of American society in social institutions . For instance , prior to the Century , people were considered to be legally Black if they had any African ancestors . This was known as the rule , which held that if you had even one drop of African blood , you would have been considered Black . The same did not apply to white blood , whiteness was defined by its purity . Even today , these ideas continue to exist . People with one Black and one white parent ( for instance , President Barack Obama ) are considered Black , and someone with one Asian parent and one white parent is usually considered Asian . Many cultural ideas of racial difference were justified by the use of science . White scientists of the early Century set out to prove Black racial inferiority by studying biological difference . Most notable were studies that suggested African American skulls had a smaller cranial capacity , contained smaller brains , and , thus , less intelligence . Later studies revealed both biased methodological practices by scientists and findings that brain size did not actually predict intelligence . The practice of using science in an attempt to support ideas of racial superiority and inferiority is known as scientific racism . Here , we capitalize Black and not white in recognition of Black as a reclaimed , and empowering , identity . 34 Race

i A , HI Races 17 the Earth 1857 by Clark Nott and George Robins is in the Public Domain Traces of scientific racism are evident in more recent studies of Black Americans . These studies and their applications often are often shaped by ideas about African Americans from the era of chattel slavery in the Americas . For instance , the Report , also known as The Negro Family A Case for National Action ( 1965 ) was an infamous document that claimed the family structure found among poor and African American populations , characterized by an absent father and matriarchal mother , would hinder the entire race economic and social progress . While the actual argument was much more nuanced , politicians picked up on this report to propose an essentialist argument about race and the culture of poverty . They played upon stereotypes from the era of slavery that justified treating Black Americans as less than human . One of these stereotypes is the assumption that Black men and women are these images have been best analyzed by Patricia Hill Collins ( 2004 ) in her work on controlling images of African images such as the Jezebel image of Black women and the Buck image of Black men discussed earlier . Slave owners were financially invested in the reproduction of slave children since children born of mothers in bondage would also become the property of owners , so much so that they did not wait for women to get pregnant of their own accord but institutionalized practices of rape against slave women to get them Race 35

pregnant ( Collins , 2004 ) It was not a crime to rape a this kind of rape was not seen as slaves were seen as property . But , since many people recognized African American slaves as human beings , they had to be framed as fundamentally different in other ways to justify enslavement . The notion that Black people are naturally more sexual and that Black women were therefore ( Collins 2004 ) served this purpose . Black men were framed as Bucks uninterested in monogamy and family this idea justified splitting up slave families and using Black men to impregnate Black women . The underlying perspectives in the Black families are composed of overbearing ( in both senses of the word and ) mothers and disinterested fathers and that if only they could form more stable nuclear families and mirror the white they would be lifted from assumptions of natural difference found in the ideology supporting American slavery . The structural causes of economic particularly , the undue impoverishment of Blacks and the undue enrichment of whites during slavery and decades of unequal laws and blocked access to employment opportunities ( 2006 ) ignored in this line of argument in order to claim fundamental biological differences in the realms of gender , sexuality and family or racial Furthermore , this line of thinking alternative family forms as dysfunctional rather than recognizing them as adaptations that enabled survival in difficult and even intolerable conditions . Of course , there are other racial groups recognized within the United States , but the binary is the predominant racial binary system at play in the American context . We can see that this binary exists and is socially constructed if we consider the case of the Century Irish immigrant . When they first arrived , Irish immigrants were blackened in the popular press and the white , imagination ( 1991 ) Cartoon depictions of Irish immigrants gave them dark skin and exaggerated facial features like big lips and pronounced brows . They were depicted and thought to be lazy , ignorant , and alcoholic nonwhite others for decades . Yn In Inn in an tau . oh ul up ! bums lump In noun up . an may puns at nun In my I In Inn all In and man can In at in null nu Inn nu puma not Pun A In . and at I who Sun A an an us Mu um um . mug . and nu . up no . ma Ireland from One or Two Points of View ( 1899 ) by Strickland Constable is in the Public Domain An illustration from the Strickland Constable Ireland from One or Two Neglected Points of View shows 36 Race

an alleged similarity between Irish Iberian and Negro features in contrast to the higher Teutonic . The accompanying caption reads The are believed to have been originally an African race , who thousands of years ago spread themselves through Spain over Western Europe . Their remains are found in the barrows , or burying places , in sundry parts of these countries . The skulls are of low prognathous type . They came to Ireland and mixed with the natives of the South and West , who themselves are supposed to have been of low type and descendants of savages of the Stone Age , who , in consequence of isolation from the rest of the world , had never been in the healthy struggle of life , and thus made way , according to the laws of nature , for superior races . Over time , Irish immigrants and their children and grandchildren assimilated into the category of white by strategically distancing themselves from Black Americans and other in labor disputes and participating in white supremacist racial practices and ideologies . In this way , the Irish in America became white . A similar process took place for , and , later , Jewish American immigrants from multiple European countries after the Second World War . Similar to Irish Americans , both groups became white after first being seen as . These cases show how socially constructed race is and how this labeling process still operates today . For instance , are , considered the model minority , the next group to be integrated into the white category , or will they continue to be regarded as foreign threats ?

Only time will tell . Race 37 Class class differences are particularly hidden in the US context . Part of this can be explained by the ideology of the American Dream . According to a popular belief in , anyone who works hard enough will succeed , and those who do not succeed must not have worked hard enough . There is a logical error in this form of reasoning , which does not explain the following two scenarios What about people who do not work very hard at all and still succeed ?

What about those who work exceptionally hard and never succeed ?

Part of this , of course , is about how we define success . Succeeding at the American Dream means something akin to having a great job , making a lot of money , and owning a car , a house , and all the gadgets . These are markers of material , that is , economic , wealth . Wealth is not only captured in personal income , but other assets as well ( house , car , stocks , inheritances ) not all of which are necessarily earned by hard work alone , but can come from inheritance , marriage , or luck . Though may be the binary associated with class , most people in the US context ( no matter how much wealth they have ) consider themselves . Pew Research Center , 2010 ) The label represents more than what people have in their bank reflects a political ideology . When politicians run for election or argue over legislation they often employ the term to stand in for average , morally upstanding constituents and argue for their collective voice and prosperity . Rhetorically , the middle class is not compared to the super rich ( since , in the US , you can never be too rich or too thin ) but rather the poor . So , when people talk about the middle class they are also often implying that they are NOT those deviant , immoral , poor people . This may seem harsh , but this is truly how the poor are represented in news media ( 2007 ) If this still seems , just replace with phrase the poor with welfare recipients . Welfare recipients are often faceless but framed as undeserving of assistance since they are assumed to be cheating the system , addicted to alcohol or drugs , and have only themselves to blame for their poverty ( 2007 ) Welfare recipients are the implied counterparts to the that populate political speeches and radio rants . Thus , in the United States , socioeconomic class has been constructed as a binary between the and the poor . Furthermore , these categories also carry racial and sexual meanings , as the welfare queen stereotype conjures images of poor , black , women , contrary to the fact that white women as a group are the largest recipients of welfare . Fred Block and colleagues ( 2006 ) discuss how these stereotypes about the poor are written into American poverty policies . For instance , in 1996 , President Bill Clinton passed the Personal Work Opportunities Reconciliation Act ( which fundamentally rewrote prior US welfare policy . This act limits lifetime receipt of welfare to a maximum of 60 months , or years , and requires that recipients work or train for jobs while receiving checks . Under , recent immigrants can not receive welfare for their first five years of legal residence , and undocumented immigrants can never receive welfare benefits ( Block et al . 2006 ) These restrictions are based on the assumption that welfare recipients are ultimately cheating the American taxpayer and looking for a free ride . In spite of these changes , most people still believe that being on government assistance means a lifetime of free money . Media contempt for welfare recipients is accomplished by not humanizing the experience of poverty . People experiencing poverty can face tough choices for instance , working more hours or getting a slightly better paying job can cause one to fail the means test ( an income level above which people are ineligible for welfare benefits ) for food stamps or Medicaid . The poor are increasingly forced to decide between paying for rent versus food and other bills , as the cost of living has risen dramatically in the past few decades while wages have not risen comparably . 38 Class

The SPENT game captures and humanizes this process of making tough decisions on a tight budget . Try it out and see how you fare . However , class issues are not only about income differences . Cultural capital is a term coined by the late sociologist Pierre ( 1984 ) to address class differences such as tastes in food and music or knowledge of high culture . explained that even when a formerly poor individual experiences economic mobility and becomes , there are still markers of her former status in the way she carries herself and the things she knows . We see many examples of this in popular films . When someone goes from rags to riches , they often use the wrong utensils at a dinner party , call something by the wrong name , can not tell the difference between a Chardonnay and a Merlot ( wines ) or spend their money in a showy way . Thus , someone can have high cultural capital and not be wealthy , or have low cultural capital and be a millionaire . For instance , in the popular ( and very campy ) movie Showgirls ( 1995 ) the main character , Malone , goes from homeless and unemployed to a well paid Las Vegas showgirl at record speed . Along the way , she buys an expensive Versace dress and brags about it . Unfortunately , she reveals her lack of cultural capital , and thus her former status as poor , by mispronouncing the brand ( saying instead of ) and is humiliated by some rather mean bystanders . In sum , the concept of cultural capital highlights the ways in which social class is not just about wealth and income , but that social classes develop class cultures . Pouring wine into a by is licensed under BY Class 39

Alternatives to Binary Systems Through all these examples , we hope to show that binary ways of understanding human differences are insufficient for understanding the complexities of human culture . Binary ways of thinking assume that there are only two categories of gender , race , and class identities among others , and that these two categories are complete opposites . Just as men are defined as not women in a binary system , straight people are defined as not gay , white people are defined as not Black , and people are defined as not Oppositional , binary thinking works strategically such that the dominant groups in society are associated with more valued traits , while the subordinate groups , defined as their opposites , are always associated with less valued traits . Thus , the poles in a binary system define each other and only make sense in the presence of their opposites . Masculinity only has meaning as the opposite of femininity . In reality , identities and lives are complex and . For one , all categories of identity are more richly expressed and understood as matrices of difference . More than that , all of us have multiple aspects of identity that we experience simultaneously and that are mutually constitutive . Our experience of gender is always shaped by our race , class , and other identities . Our experience of race is particular to our gender , class , and other identities as well . This is why taking an intersectional approach to understanding identity gives us a more complex understanding of social reality . Each of our social locations is impacted by the intersection of several facets of identity in a way that should give us pause when we encounter blanket statements like all men are or all are or all lesbians The social world is complex , and rather than reducing human difference to simple , we must embrace the world as it is and acknowledge the complexity . 40 Alternatives to Binary Systems

References Unit Accord Alliance . Accessed 30 March , 2017 . Block , Fred , Anna , Kerry Woodward , Zach Schiller , and . 2006 . The Compassion Gap in American Poverty ( Pierre . 1984 . Distinction A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste . Cambridge , MA Harvard University Press . 2015 . Making a matter of law . A comment from GATE on the Maltese Act on Gender Identity , Gender Expression and Sex . Accessed 30 March , 2017 . Dan and Naomi . 2002 . Caring for Young Children What the US Can Learn from Some European , 2005 . Berkeley , CA University of California Press . Alice . 1998 . Ambiguous Ambivalent Medicine ?

The Hastings Center Report 28 ( Joe . 2006 . Systemic Racism A Theory of Oppression . New York . Abby . 2009 . Keeping Sex in Bounds Sexuality and the ( De ) Construction of Race and Gender . In Gender , Sex , Sexuality An Anthology by , and ( New York Oxford University Press . Judith . 1998 . Female Masculinity . Raleigh , Duke University Press . Hill Collins , Patricia . 2005 . Black Sexual Politics , Gender , and the New Racism . New York . International Commission of Jurists . 2008 . In re , Regional Court Cologne , Germany ( February 2008 ) Accessed 30 March , 2017 . Intersex Society of North America . Accessed 04 April , 2011 . Lambda Legal . indiana . Accessed 30 March , 2017 . Gregory . 2007 . Media Magic Making Class In Race , Class , Gender An Anthology , Sixth Edition by . Anderson and Hill Collins . Belmont , CA Thompson . Daniel Patrick . 1965 . The Negro Family A Case for National , Sonny . 2013 . Disrupting How Trans and Gender Variant People Interrupt and Transfigure the Gender Accomplishment Process . Conference Presentation , Eastern Sociological Society Annual Meeting , Boston , MA . Pershing , Stephen . 1994 . Entreat me not to leave thee Bottoms Bottoms and the custody rights of gay and lesbian parents . William Mary Bill of Rights Journal ( Pew Research Center . 2010 12 22 . Accessed 30 March , 2017 . Rich , Adrienne . 1980 . Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Signs ( David 1991 . The Wages of Whiteness Race and the Making of the American Working Class . New York Verso . Rubin , Gayle . 1984 . The Traffic in Women Notes on the Political Economy of Sex . In Pleasure and Danger by Vance ( New York . Paul ( Dir . 1995 . Showgirls . Pictures . Film Willey , Angela . 2016 . Undoing Monogamy The Politics of Science and the Possibilities of Biology . Duke University Press . Dave ( 2010 . Not Just a Game Power , Politics , and American Sports . Foundation . Film References Unit 11 41