Gender & Sexuality Studies Unit I An Introduction to Women, Gender, Sexuality Studies Grounding

UNIT I AN INTRODUCTION TO WOMEN , GENDER , SEXUALITY STUDIES GROUNDING THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTS Unit I An ion to Women , Gender , Sexuality Studies and Concepts Theorizing Lived Experiences You may have heard the phrase the personal is political at some point in your life . This phrase , popularized by feminists in the , highlights the ways in which our personal experiences are shaped by political , economic , and cultural forces within the context of history , institutions , and culture . theorizing means creating feminist theories and knowledge from the actual experiences of groups of people who have traditionally been excluded from the production of academic knowledge . A key element to feminist analysis is a commitment to the creation of knowledge grounded in the experiences of people belonging to marginalized groups , including for example , women , people of color , people in the Global South , immigrants , indigenous people , gay , lesbian , queer , and trans people , poor and people , and disabled people . Feminist theorists and activists argue for theorizing beginning from the experiences of the marginalized because people with less power and resources often experience the effects of oppressive social systems in ways that members of dominant groups do not . From the bottom of a social system , participants have knowledge of the power holders of that system as well as their own experiences , while the reverse is rarely true . Therefore , their experiences allow for a more complete knowledge of the workings of systems of power . For example , a story of the development of industry in the century told from the perspective of the owners of factories would emphasize capital accumulation and industrial progress . However , the development of industry in the century for immigrant workers meant working days to feed themselves and their families and fighting for employer recognition of trade unions so that they could secure decent wages and the work day . Depending on which you begin with , you will have very different theories of how industrial capitalism developed , and how it works today . Feminism is not a single school of thought but encompasses diverse theories and analytical as socialist feminist theories , radical sex feminist theories , black feminist theories , queer feminist theories , theories , feminist disability theories , and intersectional feminist theories . In the video below , Barbie explains feminist theories , of Ask , defines generally as a project that works for the political , social , and economic equality of the sexes , and suggests that different types of feminist propose different sources of gender inequality and solutions . with Barbie help ) identifies and defines 11 different types of feminism and the solutions they propose I Liberal feminism I Marxist feminism I Radical feminism I feminism I Sex positive feminism I Separatist feminism I Cultural feminism I Womanism ( intersectional feminism ) I Postcolonial feminism I I Girlie feminism What types of feminism do and Barbie leave out of this list ?

Do you agree with how they Theorizing Lived Experiences characterize these types of feminism ?

Which issues across these do you think are most important ?

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here ?

Stuff Mom Never Told You . 2016 , March ) Barbie Explains Feminist Theories Radical , Liberal , Black , etc . Retrieved from watch ?

The common thread in all these feminist theories is the belief that knowledge is shaped by the political and context in which it is made ( Scott 1991 ) Acknowledging that all knowledge is constructed by individuals inhabiting particular social locations , feminist theorists argue that how one social position influences the ways that they understand the of utmost necessity when creating theory and knowledge . As people occupy particular social locations in terms of race , class , ethnicity , gender , sexuality , age , and ability , these multiple identities in combination all at the same time shape their social experiences . At certain times , specific dimensions of their identities may be more salient than at others , but at no time is anyone without multiple identities . Thus , categories of identity are intersectional , influencing the experiences that individuals have and the ways they see and understand the world around them . In the United States , we often are taught to think that people are , individuals . We repeatedly hear that everyone is unique and that everyone has an equal chance to make something of themselves . While feminists also believe that people have the ability to influence the direction of their also argue that an individual agency is limited or enhanced by their social position . A powerful way to understand oneself and ones Theorizing Lived Experiences

multiple identities is to situate one experiences within multiple levels of ( individual ) group ) structural ) and global . These levels of analysis offer different analytical approaches to understanding a phenomenon . Connecting personal experiences to larger , structural forces of race , gender , ethnicity , class , sexuality , and ability allows for a more powerful understanding of how our own lives are shaped by forces greater than ourselves , and how we might work to change these larger forces of inequality . Like a microscope that is initially set on a View the most minute parts of a cell , moving back to see the whole of the cell , and then pulling one eye away from the microscope to see the whole of the organism , these levels of analysis allow us to situate experiences phenomena within broader , structural processes that shape whole populations . The micro level is that which we , as individuals , live with other people on the street , in the classroom , or while we are at a party or a social gathering . Therefore , the is the level of analysis focused on individuals experiences . The meso leve of analysis moves the microscope back , seeing how groups , communities and organizations structure social life . A meso might look at how churches shape gender expectations for women , how schools teach students to become girls and boys , or how workplace policies make gender transition and recognition either easier or harder for trans gender nonconforming workers . The macro level consists of government policies , programs , and institutions , as well as ideologies and categories of identity . In this way , the macro level involves national power structures as well as ideas about different groups of people according to race , class , gender , and sexuality spread through various institutions , such as media , education and policy . Finally , the global level of analysis includes transnational production , trade , and migration , global capitalism , and transnational trade and law bodies ( such as the International Monetary Fund , the United Nations , the World Trade Organization ) transnational forces that bear upon our personal lives but that we often ignore or fail to see . How Macro Structures Impact People Applying multiple levels of analysis , let look at the experiences of a Latina working in a , a factory on the border of the US and Mexico . These factories were built to take advantage of the difference in the price of labor in these two countries . At the micro level , we can see the workers daily struggles to feed herself and her family . We can see how exhausted she is from working every day for more than eight hours and then coming home to care for herself and her family . Perhaps we could examine how she has developed a persistent cough or skin problems from working with the chemicals in the factory and using water contaminated with from the factory she lives near . On the , we can see how the community that she lives within has been transformed by the , and how other women in her community face similar financial , health , and environmental problems . We may also see how these women are organizing together to attempt to form a union that can press for higher wages and benefits . Moving to the macro and global levels , we can situate these experiences within the Mexican governments participation within global and regional trade agreements such as the North American Free Trade Act ( and the Central American Free Trade Act ( and their negative effects on environmental regulations and labor laws , as well as the effects of global capitalist restructuring that has shifted production from North America and Europe to Central and South America and Asia . For further discussion , see the textbook section on globalization . Recognizing how forces greater than ourselves operate in shaping the successes and failures we typically attribute to individual decisions allows us see how inequalities are patterned by race , class , gender , and just by individual decisions . Approaching these issues through multiple levels of the micro , meso , and macro a more integrative and complete understanding of both personal experience and the ways in which macro structures affect the people who live within them . Through looking at labor in a through multiple levels Theorizing Lived Experiences

of analysis we are able to connect what are experienced at the micro level as personal problems to macro economic , cultural , and social problems . This not only gives us the ability to develop theory , but also allows us to organize with other people who feel similar effects from the same economic , cultural , and social problems in order to challenge and change these problems . Theorizing Lived Experiences

Critical Introduction to the Field There was a time when it seemed all knowledge was produced by , about , and for men . This was true from the physical and social sciences to the canons of music and literature . Looking from the angle of mainstream education , studies , textbooks , and masterpieces were almost all authored by white men . It was not uncommon for college students to complete entire courses reading only the work of white men in their fields . Women , Gender , Sexuality Studies ( is an field that challenges the androcentric production of knowledge . is the of and ways of understanding the world . Alison , a lesbian feminist comics artist , described what has come to be known as the Test , which demonstrates the androcentric perspective of a majority of films . Films only pass the Test if they ) Feature two women characters , Those two women characters talk to each other , and ) They talk to each other about something other than a man . Many people might be surprised to learn that a majority of films do not pass this test ! This demonstrates how is pervasive in the industry and results in films . A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here ?

Critical Introduction to the Field Feminist frequency . 2009 , December ) The test for women in movies . Retrieved from , Feminist scholars argue that the common assumption that knowledge is produced by rational , impartial ( male ) scientists often obscures the ways that scientists create knowledge through , raced , classed , and sexualized perspectives ( Scott 1991 ) Feminist scholars include biologists , anthropologists , sociologists , historians , chemists , engineers , economists and researchers from just about any identifiable department at a university . Disciplinary diversity among scholars in this field facilitates communication across the disciplinary boundaries within the academy to more fully understand the social world . This text offers a general introduction to the field of Women , Gender , Sexuality Studies . As all authors of this textbook are trained both as sociologists and feminist scholars , we situate our framework , which is heavily shaped by a sociological lens , within larger feminist debates . We highlight some of the key areas in the field rather than comprehensively covering every topic . The Women Liberation Movement and Civil Rights Movement of the Century called attention to these conditions and aimed to address these absences in knowledge . Beginning in the , universities across the United States instituted Womens and Ethnic Studies departments ( African American Studies , Asian American Studies , Latin American Studies , Native American Studies , etc . in response to student protests and larger social movements . These departments reclaimed buried histories and centered the knowledge production of marginalized groups . As white , heterosexual women had the greatest access to education and participation in Women Studies , early incarnations of the field stressed their experiences and perspectives . In subsequent decades , studies and contributions of women of color , immigrant women , women from the global south , poor and working class women , and lesbian and queer women became integral to Women Studies . More recently , analyses of disability , religion , science , gender diversity , incarceration , indigeneity , and settler colonialism have become centered in the field . As a result of this opening of the field to incorporate a wider range of experiences and objects of analysis , many Studies department are now themselves Women , Gender , and Sexuality Studies departments . Feminist scholars recognize the inextricable connection between the notions of gender and sexuality in US . society , not only for women but also for men and people of all genders , across a broad expanse of topics . In an introductory course , you can expect to learn about the impact of stringent beauty standards produced in media and advertising , why by women may not be as natural as we think , the history of the division of labor and its continuing impact on the economic lives of men and women , the unique health issues addressed by advocates of reproductive justice , the connections between women working in factories in the global south and women consuming goods in the United States , how sexual harm us all , the historical context for feminist movements and where they are today , and much more . More than a series of topics , Women , Gender , Sexuality Studies offers a way of seeing the world differently . Scholars in this field make connections across institutional ( work , family , media , law , the state ) value the knowledge that comes from lived experiences , and attend to , rather than ignore , marginalized identities and groups . Thanks to the important critiques of transnational , queer , trans and feminists of color , most contemporary scholars strive to see the world through the lens of . That is , they see systems of oppression working in concert rather than separately . For instance , the way sexism is experienced depends not only on a person gender but also on how the person experiences racism , economic inequality , ageism , and other forms of within particular historical and cultural . Critical Introduction to the Field

can be challenging to understand . This video explains the framework using the example of and policies that failed to protect Black women . Can you think of some other in which people who are marginalized in multiple ways might be left out ?

What are some things you can do to include them ?

A element has been this version of the text . You can view it online here ?

Peter Hopkins , Newcastle University . 2018 , April 22 ) What is ?

Retrieved rom ( 263719865 . Used with permission . By recognizing the complexity of the social world , Women , Gender , Sexuality Studies advocates for social change provides insight into how this can be accomplished . Critical Introduction to the Field Identity Terms Language is political , hotly contested , always evolving , and deeply personal to each person who chooses the terms with which to identify themselves . To demonstrate respect and awareness of these complexities , it is important to be attentive to language and to honor and use individuals terms ( and 2015 ) Below are some common identity terms and their meanings . This discussion is not meant to be definitive or prescriptive but rather aims to highlight the stakes of language and the debates and context surrounding these terms , and to assist in understanding terms that frequently come up in classroom discussions . While there are no strict rules about correct or incorrect language , these terms reflect much more than personal preferences . They reflect individual and collective histories , ongoing scholarly debates , and current politics . People of color Colored people People of color is a contemporary term used mainly in the United States to refer to all individuals who are white ( 1988 ) It is a political , coalitional term , as it encompasses common experiences of racism . People of color is abbreviated as . Black or African American are commonly the preferred terms for most individuals of African descent today . These are widely used terms , though sometimes they obscure the specificity of individuals histories . Other preferred terms are African or African descent , to refer , for example , to people who trace their lineage to Africa but migrated through Latin America and the Caribbean . Colored people is an antiquated term used before the civil rights movement in the United States and the United Kingdom to refer pejoratively to individuals of African descent . The term is now taken as a slur , as it represents a time when many forms of institutional racism during the Jim Crow era were legal . Disabled people People with disabilities Some people prefer phrasing , while others prefer phrasing . language linguistically puts the person before their impairment ( physical , sensory or mental difference ) Example a woman with a vision This terminology encourages people to think of those with disabilities as people ( 2016 ) The acronym stands for people with Although it aims to humanize , language has been critiqued for aiming to create distance from the impairment , which can be understood as the impairment . Those who prefer language often emphasize embracing their impairment as an integral , important , valued aspect of themselves , which they do not want to distance themselves from . Example a disabled Using this language points to how society disables individuals ( 2015 ) Many terms in common use have meanings , such as evaluative expressions like lame , retarded , crippled , and It is important to avoid using these terms . Although in the case of disability , both and phrasing are currently in use , as mentioned above , this is not the case when it comes to race . Transgender , Transgendered , Trans , Trans , Transsexual , Cis Transgender generally refers to individuals who identify as a gender not assigned to them at birth . The term is used as an adjective ( ie , a transgender woman , not a transgender ) however some individuals describe themselves by using transgender as a noun . The term transgendered is not preferred because it emphasizes ascription and undermines definition . Trans is an abbreviated term and individuals appear to use it these days more often than transgender . Transition is both internal and social . Some individuals who transition do not experience a change in their gender identity since they have always identified in the way that they do . Trans is an umbrella term 10 Identity Terms

which encompasses all gender identities ( Tompkins 2014 ) and refer to gender identities beyond binary identifications of man or woman . The term became popularized within queer and trans communities in the and , and the term became popularized in the ( Roxie 2011 ) meaning without gender , can describe people who do not have a gender identity , while others identify as or gender neutral , have an undefinable identity , or feel indifferent about gender ( Brooks 2014 ) people experience shifts between gender identities . The term transsexual is a term , and indicates a binary understanding of gender and an individual identification with the opposite gender from the gender assigned to them at birth . or cis refers to individuals who identify with the gender assigned to them at birth . Some people prefer the term . Additional gender identity terms exist these are just a few basic and commonly used terms . Again , the emphasis of these terms is on viewing individuals as they view themselves and using their names and pronouns . Queer , Bisexual , Pansexual , Polyamorous , Asexual , Queer as an identity term refers to a sexual identity it is also used as a term for all ( lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender , queer ) individuals . The term was historically used in a derogatory way , but was reclaimed as a term in the United States . Although many individuals identify as queer today , some still feel personally insulted by it and disapprove of its use . Bisexual is typically defined as a sexual orientation marked by attraction to either men or women . This has been as a binary approach to sexuality , which excludes individuals who do not identify as men or women . Pansexual is a sexual identity marked by sexual attraction to people of any gender or sexuality . Polyamorous ( poly , for short ) or relationships are open or individuals may have multiple consensual and sexual romantic relationships at once ( 2006 ) Asexual is an identity marked by a lack of or rare sexual attraction , or low or absent interest in sexual activity , abbreviated to ace ( Decker 2014 ) distinguish between sexual and romantic attraction , delineating various included under an ace umbrella . In several later sections of this book , we discuss the terms , and these terms are not identity but are used to describe how sexuality is constructed in society and the politics around such constructions . Latino , Latin American , Latina , Latin , Mexican American , Hispanic Latino is a term used to describe people of Latin American origin or descent in the United States , while Latin American describes people in Latin America . Latino can refer specifically to a man of Latin American origin or descent Latina refers specifically to a woman of Latin American origin or descent . The terms and Latin include both the and endings to avoid the sexist use of Latino to refer to all individuals . and similarly describe people of Mexican origin or descent in the United States , and may be used interchangeably with Mexican American , or . However , as has the connotation of being politically active in working to end oppression of Mexican Americans , and is associated with the literary and civil rights movements of the and , people may prefer the use of either or Mexican American , depending on their political orientation . is a shortened form of , from the name for the indigenous Aztec Empire . Some individuals prefer the spelling to emphasize their indigenous ancestry ( 2004 ) and avoid either the or the endings to explicitly include individuals of all genders ( Ramirez and Blay 2017 ) Hispanic refers to the people and nations with a historical link to Spain and to people of country heritage who speak the Spanish language . Although many people can be considered both and Hispanic , Brazilians , for example , are Latin American but neither Hispanic nor Latino , while Spaniards are Hispanic but not Latino . Preferred terms vary regionally and politically these terms came into use in the context of the United States . Identity Terms 11

Indigenous , First Nations , Indian , Native , Native American , American Indian , Aboriginal Indigenous refers to descendants of the original inhabitants of an area , in contrast to those that have settled , occupied or colonized the area ( Turner 2006 ) Terms vary by specificity for example , in Australia , individuals are Aboriginal , while those in Canada are First Nations . is sometimes used in the Canadian context , too , though more commonly in documents , not so much as a term of . In the United States , individuals may refer to themselves as Indian , American Indian , Native , or Native American , or , perhaps more commonly , they may refer to their specific tribes or nations . Because of the history of the term , Indian , like other reclaimed terms , outsiders should be very careful in using it . Global South , Global North , Third world , First world , Developing country , Developed country Global South and Global North refer to socioeconomic and political divides . Areas of the Global South , which are typically and politically disadvantaged are Africa , Latin America , parts of Asia , and the Middle East . Generally , Global North areas , including the United States , Canada , Western Europe and parts of East Asia , are typically and politically advantaged . Terms like Third world , First world , Developing country , and Developed country have been for their hierarchical meanings , where areas with more resources and political power are valued over those with less resources and less power ( Silver 2015 ) Although the terms Global South and Global North carry the same problematic connotations , these tend to be the preferred terms today . In addition , although the term Third world has been , some people do not see Third world as a negative term and use it referentially . Also , Third world was historically used as an oppositional and coalitional term for nations and groups who were with either the capitalist First world and communist Second world especially during the Cold War . For example , those who participated in the Third World Liberation Strike at San Francisco State University from 1968 to 1969 used the term to express solidarity and to establish Black Studies and the Ethnic Studies College ( Springer 2008 ) We use certain terms , like Global South , throughout the book , with the understanding that there are problematic aspects of these . Transnational , Global , Globalization Transnational has been variously defined . Transnational describes migration and the transcendence of borders , signals the diminishing relevance of the in the current iteration of globalization , is used interchangeably with ( any reference to materials from a region outside its current location ) designates a form of ( transnational capital ) and signals the of social movements . For and Kaplan ( 2001 ) the terms transnational women movements or global women movements are used to refer to UN . conferences on women , global feminism as a policy and activist arena , and human rights initiatives that enact new forms of . Chandra ( 2003 ) has argued that transnational feminist scholarship and social movements critique and mobilize against globalization , capitalism , and institutions like the World Trade Organization . In this sense , transnational refers to solidarity in feminist organizing . and ( 2001 ) have observed that transnational feminist inquiry also examines how these movements have been tied to colonial processes and imperialism , as national and international histories shape transnational social movements . In feminist politics and studies , the term transnational is used much more than international , which has been critiqued because it centers the . Whereas transnational can also take seriously the role of the state it does not assume that the state is the most relevant actor in global processes . Although all of these are technically global processes , the term global is oftentimes seen as abstract . It appeals to the notion of global sisterhood , which is often suspect because of the assumption of commonalities among women that often times do not exist . 12 Identity Terms

Structures of Power A social structure is a set of social relationships , practices and institutions that can be difficult to see at work in our daily lives . They are intangible social relations , but work much in the same way as structures we can see buildings and skeletal systems are two examples . The human body is structured by bones that is to say that the rest of our bodies organs and vessels are where they are because bones provide the structure upon which these other things can reside . Structures limit possibility , but they are not fundamentally unchangeable . For instance , our bones may deteriorate over time , suffer acute injuries , or be affected by disease , but they never spontaneously change location or disappear into thin air . Such is the way with social structures . Social ' by Shane is licensed under The elements of a social structure , the parts of social life that direct possible actions , are the institutions of society . These will be addressed in more detail later , but for now social institutions may be understood to include the government , work , education , family , law , media , and medicine , among others . To say these institutions direct , or structure , possible social action , means that within the confines of these spaces there are rules , norms , and procedures that limit what actions are possible . For instance , family is a concept near and dear to most , but historically and culturally family forms have been highly specified , that is structured . According to Dorothy Smith ( 1993 ) the standard North American family ( or , includes two parents and one or more children . It also includes a division of labor in which the earns a larger income and the takes responsibility for most of the and . Although families vary in all sorts of ways , this is the norm to which they are most often compared . Thus , while we may consider our pets , friends , and lovers as family , the state , the legal system , and the media do not affirm these possibilities in the way they affirm the . In turn , when most people think of who is in their family , the normative notion of parents and children structures who they consider . Overlaying these social structures are structures of power . By power we mean two things ) access to and through the various social institutions mentioned above , and ) processes of , normalizing , and valuing certain Structures of Power 13

identities over others . This definition of power highlights the structural , institutional nature of power , while also highlighting the ways in which culture works in the creation and of certain categories of people . Power in American society is organized along the axes of gender , race , class , sexuality , ability , age , nation , and religious identities . Some identities are more highly valued , or more normalized , than because they are contrasted to identities thought to be less valuable or less Thus , identities are not only of individuals , but grant a certain amount of collective access to the institutions of social life . This is not to say , for instance , that all white people are alike and wield the same amount of power over all people of color . It does mean that white , women as a group tend to hold more social power than women of color . This is where the concept of is key . All individuals have multiple aspects of identity , and simultaneously experience some privileges due to their socially valued identity statuses and disadvantages due to their devalued identity statuses . Thus a white , heterosexual woman may be disadvantaged compared to a white man , but she may experience advantages in different in relation to a black , heterosexual woman , or a white , heterosexual man , or a white lesbian woman . Privilege is when on think something is not a problem because it is not a problem to on by Ton ) Webster is licensed under At the higher level of social structure , we can see that some people have greater access to resources and institutionalized power across the board than do others . Sexism is the term we use for discrimination and blocked access women face . describes discrimination and blocked access that transgender people face . Racism describes discrimination and blocked access on the basis of race , which is based on meanings rather than biological differences . Classism describes discrimination on the basis of social class , or blocked access to material wealth and social status . describes discrimination on the basis of physical , mental , or emotional impairment or blocked access to the fulfillment of needs and in particular , full participation in social life . These reflect dominant cultural notions that women , trans people , people of color , poor people , and disabled people are inferior to men , people , white people , and people , and people . Yet , the are greater than individuals prejudice against women , trans people , people of color , the poor , and disabled people . For instance , in the founding of the United States the institutions of social life , including work , law , education , and the like , were built to benefit wealthy , white men since at the time these were , by law , the only real citizens of the country . 14 Structures of Power

Although these institutions have significantly changed over time in response to social movements and more progressive cultural shifts , their sexist , racist , and structures continue to persist in different forms today . to , the language of , such as in racialization is used to highlight the formation or processes by which these forms of difference have been given meaning and power ( and 1986 ) See further discussion on this process in the section below on social construction ) Just like the human body skeletal structure , social structures are not immutable , or completely resistant to change . Social movements mobilized on the basis of identities have fought for increased equality and changed the structures of society , in the US and abroad , over time . However , these struggles do not change society overnight some struggles last decades , centuries , or remain always unfinished . The structures and institutions of social life change slowly , but they can and do change based on the concerted efforts of individuals , social movements and social institutions . Structures of Power 15

Social Constructionism Social is a theory of knowledge that holds that characteristics typically thought to be immutable and solely as gender , race , class , ability , and products of human definition and interpretation shaped by cultural and historical ( 2010 ) As such , social constructionism highlights the ways in which cultural men , women , black , white concepts created , changed , and reproduced through historical processes within institutions and culture . We do not mean to say that bodily variation among individuals does not exist , but that we construct categories based on certain bodily features , we attach meanings to these categories , and then we place people into the categories by considering their bodies or bodily aspects . For example , by the drop rule ( see also page 35 ) regardless of their appearance , individuals with any African ancestor are considered black . In contrast , racial conceptualization and thus racial categories are different in Brazil , where many individuals with African ancestry are considered to be white . This shows how identity categories are not based on strict characteristics , but on the social perceptions and meanings that are assumed . Categories are not natural or and the boundaries around them are always are contested and redefined in different historical periods and across different societies . Therefore , the social constructionist perspective is concerned with the meaning through defining and categorizing groups of people , experience , and reality in cultural . The Social Construction of What does it mean to be heterosexual in contemporary US society ?

Did it mean the same thing in the late century ?

As historian of human sexuality Ned shows in The Invention of Heterosexuality ( 1999 ) the word heterosexual was originally coined by James in 1892 , but its meaning and usage differed drastically from contemporary understandings of the term . thought of as not defined by their attraction to the opposite sex , but by their inclinations to both Furthermore , thought of the heterosexual as someone who betrayed inclinations to abnormal methods of gratification ( 1995 ) In other words , heterosexuals were those who were attracted to both sexes and engaged in sex for pleasure , not for reproduction . further points out that this definition of the heterosexual lasted within cultures in the United States until the , and then went through various radical up to the current usage . Looking at this historical example makes visible the process of the social construction of heterosexuality . First of all , the example shows how social construction occurs within this case , a medical doctor created a new category to describe a particular type of sexuality , based on existing medical knowledge at the time . was initially a medical term that defined a deviant type of sexuality . Second , by seeing how middle class culture , more sexuality in the century , it is possible to see how drastically the meanings of the concept have changed over time . Typically , in the United States in contemporary usage , heterosexuality is thought to mean normal or good is usually the invisible term defined by what is thought to be its opposite , homosexuality . However , in its initial usage , was thought to counter the norm of reproductive sexuality and be , therefore , deviant . This gets to the third aspect of social constructionism . That is , cultural and historical shape our definition and understanding of concepts . In this case , the norm of reproductive sex not for pleasure , but to have what types of sexuality are regarded as normal or Fourth , this case illustrates how categorization shapes human experience , behavior , and interpretation of reality . To be a heterosexual in middle class culture in 16 I Social Constructionism

the US in the early was not something desirable to was not an identity that most people would have wanted to inhabit . The very definition of as deviant , because it violated reproductive sexuality , defined proper sexual behavior as that which was reproductive and not . Social constructionist approaches to understanding the world challenge the essentialist or biological determinist understandings that typically underpin the common sense ways in which we think about race , gender , and sexuality . Essentialism is the idea that the characteristics of persons or groups are significantly influenced by biological factors , and are therefore largely similar in all human cultures and historical periods . A key assumption of essentialism is that a given truth is a necessary natural part of the individual and object in question ( Gordon and Abbott 2002 ) In other words , an essentialist understanding of sexuality would argue that not only do all people have a sexual orientation , but that an individual sexual orientation does not vary across time or place . In this example , sexual orientation is a given truth to is thought to be inherent , biologically determined , and essential to their being . Essentialism typically relies on a biological determinist theory of identity . Biological determinism can be defined as a general theory , which holds that a group biological or genetic makeup shapes its social , political , and economic destiny ( 2014 ) For example , sex is typically thought to be a biological fact , where bodies are classified into two categories , male and female . Bodies in these categories are assumed to have sex chromosomes , reproductive systems , hormones , and sex characteristics . However , sex has been defined in many different ways , depending on the context within which it is defined . For example , feminist law professor Julie ( 2002 ) writes that in the late century and early century , when reproductive function was considered one of a womans essential characteristics , the medical community decided that the presence or absence of ovaries was the ultimate criterion of sex ( 2002 113 ) Thus , sexual difference was produced through the assumption that women are defined by their ability to have children . Instead of assigning sex based on the presence or absence of ovaries , medical practitioners in the contemporary US typically assign sex based on the appearance of genitalia . Differential definitions of sex point to two other primary aspects of the social construction of reality . First , it makes apparent how even the things commonly thought to be natural or essential in the world are socially constructed . Understandings of nature change through history and across place according to systems of human knowledge . Second , the social construction of difference occurs within relations of power and privilege . Sociologist Abby ( 2009 ) argues that these two aspects of the social construction of difference can not be separated , but must be understood together . Discussing the construction of racial difference , she argues that inequality and oppression actually produce ideas of essential racial difference . Therefore , racial categories that are thought to be natural or essential are created within the context of power the case of , that includes slavery , laws regulating interracial sexual relationships , lynching , and white supremacist discourse . Social constructionist analyses seek to better understand the processes through which , or sexualized occur , in order to untangle the power relations within them . Notions of disability are similarly socially constructed within the context of power relations . The medical model of disability frames body and mind differences and perceived challenges as flaws that need fixing at the individual level . The social model of disability shifts the focus to the disabling aspects of society for individuals with ( physical , sensory or mental differences ) where the society disables those with ( Shakespeare 2006 ) Disability , then , refers to a form of oppression where individuals understood as having are imagined to be inferior to those without , and are devalued and unwanted . This perspective manifests in structural arrangements that limit access for those with . A critical disability perspective critiques the idea that is natural and sentiment , which frames the person rather than the society as the problem . What are the implications of a social constructionist approach to understanding the world ?

Because social Social Constructionism 17 constructionist analyses examine categories of difference as fluid , dynamic , and changing according to historical and geographical context , a social constructionist perspective suggests that existing inequalities are neither inevitable nor immutable . This perspective is especially useful for the activist and emancipatory aims of feminist movements and theories . By centering the processes through which inequality and power relations produce , sexualized , and difference , social constructionist analyses challenge the of minorities who have been thought to be essentially or inherently inferior to privileged groups . Additionally , social constructionist analyses destabilize the categories that organize people into hierarchically ordered groups through uncovering the historical , cultural , institutional origins of the groups under study . In this way , social constructionist analyses challenge the categorical underpinnings of inequalities by revealing their production and reproduction through unequal systems of knowledge and power . 18 Social Constructionism

Articulated by legal scholar Crenshaw ( 1991 ) the concept of identifies a mode of analysis integral to women , gender , sexuality studies . Within intersectional , race , class , gender , sexuality , age , ability , and other aspects of identity are considered mutually constitutive that is , people experience these multiple aspects of identity simultaneously and the meanings of different aspects of identity are shaped by one another . In other words , notions of gender and the way a persons gender is interpreted by others are always impacted by notions of race and the way that persons race is interpreted . For example , a person is never received as just a woman , but how that person is impacts how the person is received as a woman . So , notions of blackness , brownness , and whiteness always influence experience , and there is no experience of gender that is outside of an experience of race . In addition to race , experience is also shaped by age , sexuality , class , and ability likewise , the experience of race is impacted by gender , age , class , sexuality , and ability . This work is in the Public Domain , Understanding requires a particular way of thinking . It is different than how many people imagine 19

identities operate . An intersectional analysis of identity is distinct from identity models and additive models of identity . A single determinant model of identity presumes that one aspect of identity , say , gender , dictates one access to or disenfranchisement from power . An example of this idea is the concept of global sisterhood , or the idea that all women across the globe share some basic common political interests , concerns , and needs ( Morgan 1996 ) If women in different locations did share common interests , it would make sense for them to unite on the basis of gender to fight for social changes on a global scale . Unfortunately , if the analysis of social problems stops at gender , what is missed is an attention to how various cultural shaped by race , religion , and access to resources may actually place some women needs at to other women needs . Therefore , this approach obscures the fact that women in different social and geographic locations face different problems . Although many white , class women activists of the century US fought for freedom to work and legal parity with men , this was not the major problem for women of color or white women who had already been actively participating in the US labor market as domestic workers , factory workers , and slave laborers since early US colonial settlement . Campaigns for women equal legal rights and access to the labor market at the international level are shaped by the experience and concerns of white American women , while women of the global south , in particular , may have more pressing concerns access to clean water , access to adequate health care , and safety from the physical and psychological harms of living in tyrannical , or economically impoverished nations . This work is in the Public Domain , In contrast to the identity model , the additive model of identity simply adds together privileged and disadvantaged identities for a slightly more complex picture . For instance , a Black man may experience some advantages based on his gender , but has limited access to power based on his race . This kind of analysis is exemplified in how race and gender wage gaps are portrayed in statistical studies and popular news reports . Below , you can see a median wage gap table from the Institute for Women Policy Research compiled in 2009 . In reading the table , it can be seen that the gender wage gap is such that in 2009 , overall , women earned 77 of what men did in the US . The table breaks down the information further to show that earnings varied not only by gender but by race as well . Thus , Hispanic or Latino women earned only of what white men did while white women made 75 . This is certainly more descriptive than a single gender wage gap figure or a single race wage gap figure . The table is useful at pointing to potential structural explanations that may make earnings differ between groups . For instance , looking at the chart , you may immediately wonder why these gaps exist is it a general difference of education levels , occupations , regions of 20

residence or skill levels between groups , or is it something else , such as discrimination in hiring and promotion ?

What it is not useful for is predicting people incomes by plugging in their gender plus their race , even though it may be our instinct to do so . Individual experiences differ vastly and for a variety of reasons there are outliers in every group . Most importantly , even if this chart helps in understanding structural reasons why incomes differ , it doesn provide all the answers . Table Average Annual Earnings for Workers age 15 Years and Older by Race and Ethnicity , 2015 Men Women Ethnic Background ( Women Earnings as of White Male Earnings All Groups 5121 White 5720 Black Asian American 6157 Hispanic or Latino 35 67 White alone , not Hispanic Black alone or in combination ( may include Hispanic ) Asian American alone or in combination ( may include Hispanic ) and Hispanic ( may be of any race ) Source Institute for Women Policy Research . Compilation of US . Census Bureau , Current Population Survey . 2016 . Historical Income Tables Table . Year Round Workers by Median Earnings and Sex 1987 to 2015 . The additive model does not take into account how our shared cultural ideas of gender are and our ideas of race are and that these ideas structure access to resources and , political , interpersonal . Sociologist Patricia Hill Collins ( 2005 ) has developed a strong intersectional framework through her discussion of race , gender , and sexuality in her historical analysis of representations of Black sexuality in the US . Hill Collins shows how contemporary white American culture Black men and women and she points to a history of enslavement and treatment as chattel as the origin and motivator for the use of these images . In order to justify slavery , Americans were thought of and treated as less than human . Sexual reproduction was often forced among slaves for the financial benefit of plantation owners , but owners reframed this coercion and rape as evidence of the natural and uncontrollable sexuality of people from the African continent . Images of Black men and women were not completely the same , as Black men were constructed as bucks with little interest in continued relationships whereas Black women were framed as that became the matriarchs of their families . Again , it is important to note how the context , where enslaved families were often forcefully dismantled , is often left unacknowledged and contemporary constructions are assumed and framed as individual choices or traits . It is shockingly easy to see how these images are still present in contemporary media , culture , and politics , for instance , in discussions of American welfare programs . This analysis reveals how race , gender , and sexuality intersect . We can not simply pull these identities apart because they are interconnected and mutually enforcing . 21

Although the framework of intersectional has contributed important insights to feminist analyses , there are problems . refers to the mutually nature of multiple aspects of identity , yet in practice this term is typically used to signify the specific difference of women of color , which effectively produces women of color ( and in particular , Black women ) as Other and again centers white women ( 2012 ) In addition , the framework of was created in the context of the United States therefore , the use of the framework reproduces the United States as the dominant site of feminist inquiry and womens studies bias ( 2012 ) Another failing of is its premise of fixed categories of identity , where like race , gender , class , and sexuality are assumed to be stable . In contrast , the notion of assemblage considers categories events , actions , and encounters between bodies , rather than simply attributes ( 2012 ) Assemblage refers to a collage or collection of things , or the act of assembling . An assemblage perspective emphasizes how relations , patterns , and connections between concepts give concepts meaning ( 2012 ) Although assemblage has been framed against , identity categories mutual is accounted for in both and assemblage . Gender is too often used simply and erroneously to mean white women , while race too often connotes Black An intersectional perspective examines how identities are related to each other in our own experiences and how the social structures of race , class , gender , sexuality , age , and ability intersect for everyone . As opposed to determinant and additive models of identity , an intersectional approach develops a more sophisticated understanding of the world and how individuals in differently situated social groups experience differential access to both material and symbolic resources . 22

References Unit I Brooks , Katherine . 2014 . Profound Portraits Of Young Individuals Challenge The The Post . 06 . Accessed 15 May , 2017 . Crenshaw , 1991 . Mapping the Margins , Identity Politics , and Violence against Women of Color . Stanford Law Review 43 ( Decker , Julie . 2014 . The Invisible Orientation An Introduction to Asexuality . Carrel Books . and . 2015 . Reasons Why We Police Disabled People Language ( And Why We Need to Stop ) Everyday Feminism Magazine . 2015 07 . Accessed 15 May , 2017 . A . 2009 . Keeping Sex in Bounds Sexuality and the ( De ) Construction of Race and Gender . in Sex , Gender , and Sexuality The New Basics , edited by Abby , Kimberly and Tre . Oxford , UK Oxford University Press . Gordon , and Abbott . 2002 A Social Constructionist Essential Guide to In Robert and Betsy Crane , Sexual Lives Theories and Realities of Human . New York , 2002 . Definitional Dilemmas Male or Female ?

Black or White ?

The Laws Failure , to Recognize and in Gender Nonconformity , Race and Sexuality Charting the Connections , edited by Lester . Madison University of Wisconsin Press . and Kaplan . 2001 . Global Identities Theorizing Transnational Studies of Sexuality , and . 2004 . How Feminists Practice Social Research . in Feminist Perspectives on Social Research . Oxford , UK Oxford University Press . Hill Collins , Patricia . 2005 . Black Sexual Politics , Gender , and the New Racism . New York . Institute for Women Policy Research Compilation of Census Bureau Current Population Survey . 2016 . Historical Income Tables Table . Year Round Workers by Median Earnings and Sex 1987 to data demo . Accessed 30 March , 2017 . 1995 . The Invention of Heterosexuality . Chicago , IL University of Chicago Press . Christian . 2006 . Polyamory and its others Contesting the terms of , Cara . 2015 . I am Disabled On Versus Language . The Body is Not an Apology . magazine . Accessed 15 May , 2017 . Ann . 2016 . Use Person First Language to Describe People With Disabilities . Very Well . Accessed 15 May , 2017 . Chandra . 2003 . Under Western Eyes Revisited Feminist Solidarity Through Anticapitalist Struggles , Signs 28 ( Morgan , Robin . 1996 . Introduction Planetary Feminism The Politics of the Century . in Sisterhood is Global The International Women Movement Anthology , edited by Morgan . New York The Feminist Press at . Michael and Howard . 1986 . Racial Formation in the United States From the to the . Psychology Press . 2012 . I would rather be a cyborg than a goddess in Assemblage Theory . Ramirez , Love and Blay . 2017 . Why People Are Using the Term . The Post . us . Accessed 15 May , 2017 . References Unit I 23

, Anita . 2004 . Pedagogy Raza Teaching Social Justice Through Student Activism . The High School Journal , 87 ( Roxie , Marilyn . 2011 . and ender . Accessed 15 May , 2017 . William . 1988 . On Language People of Color . The New York Times Magazine . 1988 11 20 magazine . Accessed 15 May , 2017 . Shakespeare , Tom . 2006 . The Social Model of Disability . In The Disability Studies Reader , ed . Davis ( New York , ed . Silver , Marc . 2015 . If You Should Call It The Third World , What Should You Call It ?

Goats and Soda , New England Public Radio . sections 2015 01 04 372684438 . Accessed 15 May , 2017 . Smith , Dorothy . 1993 . The Standard North American Family as an Ideological Journal of Family Issues 14 ( 2014 . Ghost Stories for Darwin The Science of Variation and the Politics of Diversity . Champaign University of Illinois Press . Tompkins , Avery . 2014 . Transgender Studies Quarterly ( Turner , Dale Antony . 2006 . This is not a peace pipe Towards a critical indigenous philosophy . University of Press . 24 References Unit I