Gender & Sexuality Studies Global Politics of the Body Tracy Butts

GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY Tracy Butts The concept of body politics may be unfamiliar to those who are new to the discipline of women and gender studies . In essence , body politic issues are at the center of individual , societal , and political to claim control over one own biological , social , and cultural bodily experiences . As a result , the powers at play in body politics include institutional power expressed in government and laws , nary power exacted in economic production , discretionary power exercised in consumption , and personal power negotiated in intimate relations ( Shaw 2021 ) The events of 2020 , particularly the global pandemic and US presidential election , with its issues , have been the impetus For wide conversations about the ways in which human bodies are understood , governed , and used as sites of resistance . Discussions about body politics during this time have revolved around the death of US Supreme Court Justice Ruth , reproductive rights and freedoms , and women health immigration and the separation of parents and children at the border and acts of violence Black racism and Black Lives Matter protests sexual identities and identity politics . Femicide in Turkey by Lauren Grant 2020 , was found murdered by her . death , amid a growing wave of awareness and protests to combat violence against women , sparked outrage across Turkey and the world . As activists took to the streets , often they were met with further violence , where intervened with brutal force to quash protests . death increased national and national recognition of the systemic problem of femicide ( murder ofwomen ) Calls for justice quickly moved beyond this incident , citing the increasing rates of violence against women perpetrated with impunity in Turkey and across the world . As women rights activists have evidenced , both in street protests and viral social media campaigns , femicide forms part of a larger pattern that has been emerging in Turkey under the authoritarian and Development ( Since 2010 , more than

52 GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY women have been murdered as a result of male violence , most commonly because of women attempts to make decisions about their own lives or resistance to coercive control within relationships , with the more than doubling over the The sociopolitical , patriarchal , and religious norms that women lives and their roles to the family are the root cause of persistent and increasing rates of femicide . A 2009 study conveyed that upward of 42 percent of Turkish women aged had suffered from physical or sexual violence at the hands oftheir intimate partners . Amid increasing rates of violence , Turkish activists have demanded furtherance of the Istanbul ( 2011 ) the Council of Europe leading treaty on violence against women , including domestic violence . While the doctrine has been championed for its progressive approach to combating violence against women , the convention fails to mention femicide at all , a major concern . Further , in March 2021 the withdrew from the convention , casting women lives , safety , and rights out of legal , reach , in of Turkey legal obligations under international human rights law . movements in Turkey and elsewhere have highlighted how femicide occurs within a framework of patriarchal oppression . Femicide too often entails sexual violence , coupled with the brutal mutilation of women bodies after they are murdered . The of its occurrence and the absence of justice serve as public displays of the politics of the female body . Femicide is genocide against women , and the failure of states , including Turkey , to punish perpetrators for the crime unveils how femicide entails a partial breakdown of the rule of law because the state is incapable of guaranteeing respect for women lives and human While the state has proven an impediment to safeguarding women rights , activists in Turkey and across the globe are leading a formative movement that interrogates the politics behind femicide , standing up against the practice and the impunity that sustains it .

GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY I 53 The human body is coded with meaning and . It yields insight into not just how we see ourselves but also how others see and ultimately understand us . Because our identities are read from our bodies , physical shape , hair texture , skin tone and complexion , and body used to divide and classify us into socially constructed racial groups . Within these groups , we are further divided and again based upon constructs such as class , gender , sexual identity and expression , age , religion , nationality , and ability . Consequently , we subscribe meaning to human bodies based upon our perceptions and interpretations of each of these groupings and , Learning to love our bodies can be a political act where we are socialized and taught how to perform as members of the various communities to which we belong , through body implicit and explicit norms , standards , and socially enforced expectations for presenting and using bodies ( Otis 2016 , 160 ) For example , in some communities , female pubic hair is frowned upon , viewed as unsightly and unsanitary . Therefore women who shave signal their conformity to this body rule , and those who do not shave signal their refusal to conform to the norm , for the body is read as a sign of one commitments to diet , lifestyle , fashion , and consumption . As the body signals the self , its priorities , ethics , morals , and health , its surface becomes a means of displaying such commitments ( Otis 2016 , 160 ) The body groupings are hierarchical in nature , whereby individuals belonging to the dominant groups ( white , male , are afforded the most power and privilege . As individual bodies move further from the center , meaning the more they differ from the norm , they are afforded less and less power and privilege . In studying body politics , contemporary feminist scholars build upon the work of French philosopher Michel ( 1977 ) and American philosopher and gender theorist Judith Butler ( 1993 ) whose works focus on the relationship between the body , power , and sexuality and the performative nature of gender and sex , respectively . Yet body politics have existed for as long as people have been embodied . mer slave , abolitionist , and women rights activist Sojourner Truth provides an insightful case study on body politics . In 1851 , Truth delivered her famous Ain I a Woman ?

speech at the Women Rights Convention in , Ohio . The text of her speech and the narrative around its delivery reveal how Truth and body was governed , perceived , and . In the speech , reported in the June 21 , 1851 , edition of the Am Bugle by Marius Robinson , Truth acknowledges the thinking about men and women and confronts the myth that women are inferior to men based upon their perceived lack of physical strength and mental acumen I want to say a few words about this matter . I am a woman rights . I have as much muscle as any man , and can do as much work as any man . I have plowed and reaped and husked and chopped and mowed , and can

54 I GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY any man do more than that ?

I have heard much about the sexes being equal . I can carry as much as any man , and can eat as much too , ifI can get it . I am as strong as any man that is now . As for intellect , all I can say is , ifa woman have a pint , and a man a quart why can she have her little pint full ?

You need not be afraid to give us our rights for fear we will take too much , for we can take more than our pint hold . The poor men seems to be all in confusion , and don know what to do . Why children , if you have woman rights , give it to her and you will feel better . You will have your own rights , and they won be so much trouble . Truth speech also calls attention to the ways in which her Black female body is and not afforded the power and privileges given to white women and men , despite the fact that she does the work assigned to both groups . Moreover , Truth asserts that the granting of equal rights is not a game , but rather an act that everyone and poses no threat to the rights of men . Feminist and abolitionist Frances Gage imposes her perceptions of Truth Black body on her recounting of the speech in 1863 . For one , Gage uses a Southern dialect to Truth speech and possibly Truth illiteracy Well , what dar so much racket dar must be som ting out kilter . I tink dat twixt de negroes of de South and de women at de , all bout rights , de white men will be in a pretty soon . But what all this here talking bout ?

Dat man dar say dat woman needs to be helped into carriages , and lifted ditches , and to have de best place In reality , Truth spoke with a Dutch accent , and though she never learned to read or write , Truth was well educated . Gage also focuses on Truth bodily frame , describing her almost Amazon form , which stood nearly six feet high and her right arm with its tremendous muscular Conjuring up imagery of the plantation mammy , Gage characterizes Truth as a savior and a protector , for just when some of the skinned friends were on the point of losing dignity , and the atmosphere a storm , Truth spoke out . In doing so , Gage posits that Truth had taken us up in her strong arms and carried us safely over the slough of turning the whole tide in our Gage of the text and events of the day reveals her inability to see Truth beyond her own perceptions of the identities mapped onto Truth body and misses Truth own account of her vulnerabilities as a Black woman as well as her relegation to a citizenry ( Sojourner Truth Memorial Committee , Feminist scholarship on the subject of body politics reveals that bodies are powerful symbols and sources of social power and privilege on one hand and subordination and oppression on the other ( et al . 2013 ) Gage treatment of Truth helps us to better see the development and evolution of feminist thought on the subject of bodies as well as the areas where it continues to falter , particularly with regard to race and ethnicity . March 2020 saw the anniversary of the publication of Our Bodies , referred to in some circles as the feminist Bible of women health ( Davis 2002 , 224 ) In 1969 , a group of women , mostly young , white , middle class , and college educated , met in a workshop on Women and Their Bodies , where they talked about issues of sexual and reproductive health . That group eventually morphed into the Boston Women Health Book Collective ( and gave birth to Women and

GLOBAL OF THE BODY 55 Their Bodies , a course book published in 1970 , reissued a year later as Our Bodies , Ourselves to emphasize women taking full ownership of their bodies ( Our Bodies , Ourselves , Since that time , the book has been updated and revised nine times , most recently in 2011 , has sold more than million copies , has been named one of the best hundred books ( in English ) by Time magazine , and has been reproduced in languages . But the project has also been met with criticism , namely that global feminism is little more than an imperialistic move by primarily white , US feminists to establish their brand of feminism as universal , while ignoring the experiences , circumstances and struggles of women in other parts of the world ( Davis 2002 , 240 ) Upon the insistence of Black , Latina , Native American , and Asian feminists . that an inclusive feminism examine and redress the historic evaluations of bodily difference that oppression of women according to race ( Shaw 2021 ) Our Bodies , Ourselves transitioned from translations and adaptations to inspired versions that were grounded in a country cultural as is the case with the Indian , South African , and Egyptian versions . The main concern was to ensure that feminists would have editorial control over the translation and could adapt the book to their own social , political and cultural context ( Davis 2002 , 230 ) Posture as Peace and Power by Shannon The placement and posture of our physical bodies hold great power . Since the majority of tion is through nonverbal cues , the look on our face or the Way We hold ourselves tells others a lot about what we are thinking and intending to do . In July 2016 , Evans , a licensed practical nurse from Pennsylvania , traveled to Baton Rouge , Louisiana , following the shooting death of Alton Sterling by police . Witnesses describe her calmly ing into the center of the road being blocked and cleared by police officers in riot gear , her outer serenity reflecting her inner the rights ofall people . In an incident lasting a mere thirty seconds , she was arrested by police for standing in the road . Reuters photographer caught the ning photo of the encounter as she stands upright , her dress billowing in the wind , and multiple in full riot gear rush her . Alex Haynes , a friend of twenty years , said that Evans traveled to Baton Rouge because she Wanted to look her son in the eyes to tell him she fought for his freedom and Many moments in history carry iconic images that pierce our souls and capture our imagination for a better world . The presence

56 GLOBAL OF THE BODY and poise of Evans provided one of the lasting images of the Black Lives Matter protests and hope for a more equitable future as we see a lone woman speaking truth to power with her body . US feminists of color objected to the narrow construction of gender politics by white feminists , and they moved to include the differences that race , class , and sexuality make in women position in society ( Shaw 2021 ) A decade after the publication of Our Bodies , feminists of color produced 77713 Bridge Called My Bade , edited by and Gloria . In the preface to the fourth edition , published in 2015 , writes , The first edition of Bridge Called My was collectively penned nearly five years ago with a similar hope for revolutionary solidarity . For the first time in the United States , women of color , who had been historically denied a shared political voice , endeavored to create bridges through the exploration , in print , oftheir diverse classes , cultures and . In 1982 , Gloria ) Hull , Patricia , and Barbara Smith edited All the White , All Black Are Men , but Some of Brave Blade Studies ( 2015 ) The editors speak to the necessity of the book in its introduction The political position of Black women in America has been , in a single word , embattled . The extremity of our oppression has been determined by our very biological identity . The horrors we have faced historically and continue to face as Black women in a dominated society have implications for every aspect ofour lives , including what white men have termed the life ofthe Both of these books , much like Oar Bodies , signaled the critical need for feminist scholarship that more thoughtfully and thoroughly examined the intersections of race and gender . Sandra highlights how our bodies serve as markers of our status and power in Those Who Don , the twelfth chapter of her cycle Home on Mango Street ( 1984 ) Those who don know any better come into our neighborhood scared . They think we re dangerous . They think we will attack them with shiny knives . They are stupid people who are lost and got here by take . But we aren afraid . We know the guy with the crooked eye is Davey the Baby brother , and the tall one next to him in the straw brim , that Rosa Eddie , and the big one that looks like a dumb grown man , he Fat Boy , though he not fat anymore nor a boy . All brown all around , we are safe . But watch us drive into a neighborhood of another color and our knees go and our car windows get rolled up tight and our eyes look straight . Yeah . That is how it goes and goes . 28 )

In the passage quoted above , Esperanza , young protagonist , shares how outsiders perceive her predominately and neighborhood as being dangerous , yet she feels safe there , at home , among people who look like her . But Esperanza also suggests that this fear of the other is universal , for members of her community feel unsafe when they venture into a neighborhood of another color , which for those groups is seen as safe and comforting but can feel dangerous for individuals outside of their community . Ultimately , this chapter leads us to the understanding of how the body becomes the basis for prejudice , but it is also through the body , its appearance , and behavior that prejudice can be ( and van der 2016 ) Positivity Pride by Mateo and art . GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY I 57 Standards of beauty are socially constructed Positivity Pride , or , is an eating disorder education organization that focuses on body positivity and connection with community . Ingrained in Indigenous and praxis , seeks to raise awareness of eating disorders and the of colonialism on body image in Black and Indigenous communities of color . They educate folks about the connection between trauma and disordered eating , teach practices , and focus on the needs of Black , Indigenous , and other People of Color ( They do this educational work and community support through a mix of digital media , discussion and support groups , grassroots treatment models , goal is to make space for healing opportunities by and for Black and Indigenous communities of color . They also organize the Mujeres Market , where the work of women , queer and trans artists , and creators of color celebrate each other artistry and hustle and sell their work through a market in several cities in Southern California . can be found on Instagram

58 GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY Much like where a person lives , items such as clothes , hairstyle , language , behavior , and bodily can be used to interpret a person socioeconomic status , political , and their . For example , consider the red Make America Great Again ( MAGA ) hat , colored and braided hair , and Kim Kardashian derriere , which rivals the reality television star in popularity . The red MAGA hat worn by supporters of former US president Donald . Trump signals the wearer political affiliation . The hat informs other Trump supporters they are in the presence of someone who shares their political leanings and gives the feeling of a political mass , thereby lending credence to their claim of belonging to a silent To Trump opponents , conclusions can be drawn about the wearer stance on a ber of social , equality , welfare programs , correctness , and so on . The current fashion trend of women dyeing their hair with bright left a pastels and neon colors gets read differently depending upon the comment on photo when ethnicity of the wearer . Black women wearing brightly appropriate black features and culture but fail to use ur i hair are often labelled as ghetto , a term loaded with position of power to help Americans by directing ing about class , or lack thereof , and is often code for Black itself . attention Ur Wigs instead of police brutality or Yet white women with colorful hair are often hailed as trendy , racism edgy , and daring . Kylie received similar praise back in 2015 when she posted a photo to Instagram of herself wearing her hair in two braids . Hunger Game actress took the younger Kardashian sibling to task , pointing out the double standard from which as well as her hypocrisy when you appropriate black features and culture but fail to use ur position of power to help black americans by directing attention towards ur wigs instead of police brutality or racism ( 2015 ) Similarly , older sister Kim Kardashian has literally built her career on her backside . Her posterior , which has been said to have broken the Internet , is a point of pride and the topic of much discussion , cementing Kardashian status as a sex symbol . Yet the irony of Kardashian celebrity and fame for the very attribute for which Black women have been labeled animalistic , bestial , and freakish is not lost on Black women ( Butler 2014 ) What is even more ironic is the fact that many Black women are naturally , to quote Destiny Child , bootylicious , whereas Kardashian has been dogged by rumors that her rear end has been cosmetically again , pointing to a double standard in the treatment of Black and white women .

GLOBAL OF THE BODY 59 Does Clean Have a Color ?

by Sarah Baum One of the longest racist themes in advertising , and seemingly one of the most prejudices to remove , is the idea that whiteness is equal to cleanliness and purity . Soap and other cleaning products became linked with the idea that white was pure and anything not white was dirty . The early for Ivory soap often featured racist stereotypes that Went well beyond the idea ofwhite being clean to display black as being dirty , not just in clothing but also in shades . This theme should have been left to the pages of history decades ago , but the simple concept of clean having a color continues to reappear in modern advertising . A recent television commercial in China portrayed an African man flirting with a Asian woman they approach each other , and then she suddenly stuffs a detergent pod into his mouth before forcibly shoving him into a washing machine . When he emerges , not only are his clothes clean , but he now a Asian man who winks at the camera . Even the best of intentions often fail as advertisers trip over this old bigotry . An ad for Dove soap a Black woman in a shirt she removed the shirt to revel a white woman in a shirt underneath . Dove meant to promote diversity and instead fell into this old racist theme . What even Worse , in the case ofthe Chinese ad , is their oblivious response to international and lack of response from Chinese consumers , who met the ad with apathy . What other deeply rooted racist still around in commercials that we consume every day ?

The next time the break comes on , watch with a critical eye and an engaged mind . Likewise , fat bodies get read differently depending upon the context in which they are viewed . In the mainstream United States and other western cultures , fat bodies are often labeled unhealthy , lazy , sexually and physically unattractive , and as belonging to a lower socioeconomic status . women , who are held to a different standard of beauty than their heavyset male counterparts , are often pressured to eat healthy and exercise . Yet fashionable and functional exercise clothing in plus sizes is a rather undertaking . Even the to their difference and position as other . Larger female bodies are rendered simultaneously visible and invisible . On the one hand , they are resented and shamed for taking up too much space . On the other hand , they are summarily dismissed and largely ted from media representations , except for when they are being subjected to ridicule . Depictions of fat female bodies in movies often cast them as the witty sidekick , the loveable friend , or the woman in search of a romantic partner , but rarely the leading lady . And even then , she is more often than not cast as a comedic who her way into love .

60 i GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY Size oppression intersects with other forms of oppression , including gender , race , and class In Jamaica , New Guinea , South Africa , and Tahiti , fuller , bodies are viewed as a sign of material and prosperity , good health , desirability , suitability for marriage , and beauty . The bodies of women are coveted , for they are believed to be well fed and healthy . During the height of the AIDS epidemic in South Africa , fuller suggested the individual had a clean bill of health and was . In , larger bodies are the norm for both men and women , although western in more urban areas has resulted in a slimming down of the populace . In the early , the practice of experienced a resurgence of popularity in the West African country of . Girls as young as five to seven years of age are sent to fat farms where they are forced by women called to consume as many as calories a day in order to make themselves attractive to male suitors . The prevailing belief in is that a woman size is reflective of the amount of space she holds in her husband heart . But younger generations of male and female are pushing back against the practice , which is often championed by older women who are fearful their daughters will be unable to secure a good and stable marriage and suffer as a result . Behind the Virtual Velvet Rope by Sarah Baum In the 19705 heyday of nightclubs like Studio 54 , it was common to line up and wait to be selected to enter the exclusive venue . How you looked , what you Wore , and who you were determined whether you

GLOBAL OF THE BODY 61 gained entry . This was expected , but in the 20205 world of social media , we ve moved beyond such examinations . Or have We ?

A 2019 document came to light dictating what was and was not acceptable on the social media platform i . It turns out the standards were even more restrictive than back in the . Anyone deemed to have an abnormal body shape , ugly facial looks , obvious beer belly , too many wrinkles , eye disorders , a disability , or other low quality traits were censored away from the global stream of ing . Even if the user was found to be acceptable by physical appearance , they still might be for having a poor environment , literally . In addition to physical beauty , censors limited access to anyone whose environment appeared shabby , dilapidated , or The reasoning gives for this draconian censorship is as an attempt to prevent bullying , but their internal documents do not list this as an issue . Rather , they blatantly it for their own public image in an attempt to attract and retain their idea of the right kind of user . When we use social media , it easy to overlook the ropes that section offthe companies perceived , but with the global reach of these platforms , our only real voice is in the choice to patronize these companies or not . How do you feel about policy of excluding diversity and inclusion ?

Will their censorship of economic disadvantage and physical difference your desire to use their platform ?

What can you do to encourage equality and justice in the social media sphere ?

The fact is that our bodies are imbued with meaning from almost the moment of conception . One tion often posed to expectant parents is , Do you know what you are having ?

This question speaks to the importance of knowing the fetus sex so that we might determine an appropriate means of standing and treating the unborn child based upon whether they will be a boy or a girl . The body the child will inhabit determines all manner of things , from the theme and decor of their nursery , the color of their clothes , the toys they will play with , to the name they will bear . The proliferation of parties in countries underscores the emphasis on the body . Videos posted to social media sites depict friends and families gathering to celebrate the child impending birth , sometimes to effect , with parents or siblings expressing their disappointment upon learning the fetus sex is not that for which they had hoped . These celebrations usually play upon stereotypical notions of gender , replete with and . Social media Jenna is credited with starting the trend in 2008 . In 2020 , following a party that sparked a massive in California that burned more than seven sand acres of land , events came under . On the heels of the California party , a Syrian couple in the United Arab Emirates , and , hosted what has been dubbed the world

62 i GLOBAL OF THE BODY biggest party . Broadcast on Instagram and viewed million times , the Khalifa , the tallest building in the world , was lit with blue lights and is believed to have cost more than . On social media , the celebration was panned for its lavishness and insensitivity . Twitter user tweeted , Syrians are displaced internally , displaced externally , in squalid camps and under trees , hungry , in need of aid , food , baby milk and medical supplies and treatment and the son of a former Syrian tion member spends on a gender reveal party . Disgustingly shameful ( 2020 ) rise up rebels Sep , 2020 I Syrians are displaced internally , displaced externally , in squalid camps and under trees , hungry , in need of aid , food , baby milk and medical supplies and treatment and the son of former Syrian Coalition member spends on a gender reveal party . Disgustingly shameful . Interestingly , reversed her position on parties in 2019 I know it been harmful to some individuals . It 2019 , we don need to get our joy by giving others pain , she says . I think there a new way to have these Celebrate the baby , she says . There no way to have a cake to cut into it , to see if they re going to like chess . Let just have cake ( 2019 ) Just as advances in technology aided the popularization of parties , they have also provided expectant parents with the ability to discern the sex of the fetus before birth and delivery . As a country , China has a patrilineal family system , whereby sons are preferred over daughters because the family line descends through the former . Under the country policy , which dictated that married couples could have only one child , many families were forced to take drastic measures to ensure the birth of a male heir . The advent of small , portable ultrasound machines enabled expectant parents in China to determine the sex of the fetus , allowing them to terminate pregnancies that might bear female children . In 2015 , China ended the policy . On the one hand , the policy helped to curb China rapid growth and improved the quality of life for women and children in general as well as people living in rural areas . On the other hand , the policy resulted in host of societal issues , such as forced abortions , the of children by government , an impending shortage of workers , and a population that basically too old and too male and , down the line , maybe too few ( Gross 2016 ) More importantly , the policy resulted in 30 million ( presumably heterosexual ) bachelors ( known as , or broken branches ) who can not women to marry , some of whom are now turning to human trafficking as a means of wives . An unintended consequence of China policy is that urban women born after 1980 have been afforded the opportunity to obtain an education and build professional careers . China policy underscores the fact that bodies that are marked as different , as being outside of what is considered the norm , are vulnerable to violence . Even babies and children are not safe from being enacted upon their young bodies . Take , for instance , the medical interventions performed on intersex babies and children or girls in the Global South and immigrant communities . Amnesty

GLOBAL OF THE BODY 63 estimates that of children in the world are born every year with variations of sex As a result , these children do not neatly into either a male or female body . In order to make their bodies conform to the female binary , many of these children are forced to undergo surgery in Germany and Denmark , where Amnesty International recently conducted research , many people born with variations in sex characteristics undergo surgery during infancy and early childhood to their gender appearance , despite being too young to consent to such medical Parents , ful their child will face psychological problems or harassment in the future , are put in the position of having to make decisions in the best interest of their child without full and adequate . Many of these surgeries are thought to be medically unnecessary . Not only do these procedures deprive intersex children of their right to determine their own gender and force them into an outdated female binary , they also have consequences on their right to health and their sexual and reproductive rights , particularly since they can severely impede people Amnesty International warns that these interventions may violate human rights , including the rights of the child , the right to physical and bodily integrity and the right to the highest attainable standard of health ( Amnesty , Similarly , in Africa , Asia , and the Middle East , as well as within communities around the world , girls , often before the age of , are forced to undergo female genital cutting ( or female genital lation ( refers to the practice of surgically removing all or parts of a girls external genitalia because of communal beliefs born out of a desire to control women bodies and their sexuality . To learn more about , refer to chapter in this volume , Ultimately , the ents of children who undergo believe they are doing what is in their daughter best ing her marriageability , fertility , and safety . While medical interventions on intersex people in the United States and other western countries are framed as corrective and nonviolent , is frequently viewed as barbaric and has been deemed an international human rights violation , although in both instances , medically unnecessary procedures are performed upon individuals without their consent . The treatment of children , whether it be through the socialization of their bodies , the use of unnecessary medical interventions for intersex children , the female genital cutting of girls in the Global South and immigrant communities , or the infanticide of girl children in China , underscores the assertion that as children lack voices in public politics , the body is at the core of how they experience , ate , and communicate politics in their lives ( and van der 2016 ) Like adults , especially of and marginalized groups , children learn to understand and mediate body politics in a world that is not designed for them . Their very bodies , which are small in stature in comparison to most adult bodies , identify them as children . Most public spaces are intended for normative male ies ( think subway straps that are just out of reach ) bodies ( think curbs , stairs , and places without disabled access ) and bodies ( think narrow seats without much leg room on airplanes ) Far too often , the childish body is perceived as unruly and in need of control in public spaces ( and

64 GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY 2009 ) Ultimately , children become aware of their otherness and learn to behave in ways that are acceptable through their actions , clothing , and manner of speaking as children have no , or very limited , voice in society , the main tool they have to meet and resist exclusion , segregation , and injustice is the way they perform and present their physical body when meeting others ( and van der 2016 ) As we age , our bodies and the ways in which they are read and interpreted change . The onset of menses is a period in many young women lives , signaling a transition from a girl to a woman in many cultures . The young woman ability to bear and sustain children is viewed as both a blessing and a curse . In some instances , menstruation is shrouded in mystery and is a source of embarrassment the UK can be particularly guilty of this , with people often getting awkward around the very topic of periods . At best , we calmly hand a sanitary towel or a box of organic cotton tampons to a girl who has started her period , give her a brief anatomical birds and the bees speech and call it a probably doesn want a fuss to be made after all ( culture 2019 ) Fortunately , not every culture responds in the same Menstruation takes on different manner , meanings in different social asked its readers to share their experiences with in their culture . Many of the responses they received were about the respondents first period . Below are seven stories describing their community response in 21 First Period Traditions from Around the World ( Armitage 2017 ) You have a party thrown to celebrate your transition into womanhood where you don leave the house for three days , then get presents and a huge party ( typically ) You mustn be around children or men during your first period . South Africa My mom rinsed my underwear ( literally just with water ) and smeared it all over my face because she said it would prevent pimples in the future . She made me jump three steps from the stairs because it how many days you be on your period . 23 , Philippines

GLOBAL OF THE BODY 65 When I got my period I was at my grandparents summer house . I called my grandma over to the toilet , told her what I saw on my panties , and when she saw the blood she SLAPPED ME . She literally slapped me . I had already been scared by blood and dried stains , and now I was terrorized . I thought I had done something wrong . I got very ashamed . Then she started to laugh and said that it is a conventional thing . She told me that young girls who got their first period should be slapped right there so that their cheeks will always seem red , and also they will have a sense throughout their lives . I think the latter one is the actual reason though . Turkey You need to lick a teaspoon to make the future periods easier . 17 , Israel I don know ifit happens in other countries , but here in Brazil , when a girl has her period , every ber ofthe family and the family closer friends needs to know about it . It like a ritual for celebrating . 21 , Brazil When you have your first period everyone starts to call you signorina , which means miss or young lady , and your relatives make sure that anybody who knows you gets informed about the good news . So it can become kind of awkward when your parents old friends all congratulate you in the strangest ways . 16 , Italy Older family members tend to let you have a glass of red wine when you re having your period . 20 , I was in when it happened and my dad asked ifhe should buy me a cake . 28 , United States The stories published revealed the onset of menses is commemorated by celebrations with ily , friends , and community members , tradition , ritual , superstition , old wives tales , a sense of tion , a growing sense of reverence and respect , food , beverages , and , most importantly , lots of cake . But as women bodies mature and begin before transitioning into menopause , the perception of women bodies , their status and power , also undergoes a change . In the United States , there is a prevailing belief that with menopause comes the end of a woman physical attractiveness and sexual desirability . This manner of thinking lends credence to the erroneous belief that a woman body exists solely for the function of bearing children and satisfying men sexual desires . It ultimately that a woman body is most powerful when it is fertile , a claim supported by Morton , Stone , and Singh in their 2013 article Mate Choice and the Origin of The authors

66 I GLOBAL OF THE BODY contend their research demonstrates how male mating preference for younger females could lead to the accumulation of mutations deleterious to female fertility and thus provide a menopausal period ( ton , Stone , and Singh 2013 , The trio research sought to debunk American evolutionary biologist George Williams grandmother hypothesis , which posits that women enter into menopause to ensure their children grew up to have grandchildren ( 2014 ) Our model demonstrates for the time that neither an assumption of diminished fertility in older women nor a requirement of derived from older , women assisting younger women in rearing children is necessary to explain the origin of menopause ( Morton , Stone , and Singh 2013 , Scholar Kristen Hawkes , who has built upon Williams grandmother hypothesis through her research on the people in nia , found that older women are a vital and necessary part of the community , thus explaining how women have evolved to live long beyond their childbearing years There they were right in front of us . These old ladies who were just ( 2014 ) According to scholar Rebecca Sears , the differing theories about the cause of menopause arise from gender bias that shapes the researcher frame of reference a lot of menopause work is done by women . and a lot of work on sexual selection by men is done by men ( 2014 ) In short , women researchers are inclined to approach the subject as a means of examining women usefulness , whereas male researchers focus on women lack of sexual desirability . Aging women also tend to be underrepresented in media representations and popular culture and are in many ways rendered invisible despite the many contributions they make to family , community , industry , and society . The Dinner , the third episode in the season of series Grace and , ring Jane and Lily , how older women are often ignored and overlooked . and titular characters , two divorcees in their eighties whose husbands left them to be together , go to a store to purchase cigarettes . They stand at the counter , where they are blatantly ignored by the young male cashier who turns instead to wait upon a young female customer . After Frankie warns , I about to lose my shit ! in response to being ignored , Grace has the meltdown and the cashier , Do you not see me ?

Do I not exist ?

Do you think it alright to ignore us just because she has gray hair and I don look like her ?

Frankie leads Grace out of the store . Grace apologizes for her behavior but explains that she refuses to be irrelevant , to which Frankie responds , while pulling a pack of stolen cigarettes from her purse , I learned something . We ve got a superpower . You can see me you can stop Grace revelation speaks to the myriad ways women play upon existing gender stereotypes as acts of subversion . The problem of being judged based solely upon one sex and the supposed limitations of one body is not limited to just those women whose bodies fall outside of the norm . In terms of choosing an academic major and ultimately a career , women are more likely to enter and . A study published in 2015 found that the dearth of representation of women in STEM ( science , technology , and mathematics ) revealed that some are believed to require attributes such as and genius , whereas other are believed to require more empathy or hard work . In where people thought that raw talent was required , academic departments had lower percentages of women

GLOBAL OF THE BODY 67 ( Leslie et al . 2015 , 262 ) Most of the ten jobs in the United States are female dominated , with child care workers , hosts and hostesses , and maids and housekeepers being the lowest paid ( 2016 ) The global pandemic has exposed lingering gender inequities and revealed the precarious state of progress made on this front . In The Shadow Pandemic How the 19 Crisis Is Exacerbating Gender Inequality , Morse and Anderson contend there are two one we hear about on the news and the one that largely affecting women this shadow pandemic can be seen in a spike in domestic violence as girls and women are sheltering with their abusers the loss of employment for women who hold the majority of insecure , informal and jobs the risk shouldered by the world nurses , who are predominately women and the rapid increase in unpaid care work that girls and women mostly provide already . The current emergency is poised to deeply exacerbate a stubborn one while early reports suggest that men are most likely to succumb to , the social and economic toll will be paid , disproportionately , by the Worlds girls and women . Morse and Anderson 2020 ) Issues of occupational segregation by gender in the of health care make women particularly ble in the age of COVID . According to Morse and Anderson ( 2020 ) globally , women make up 70 cent of healthcare workers , and in hot spots such as China Province and the United States , they make up 90 percent and 78 percent respectively . Women also do most of the support jobs at health , including the cleaning , laundry , and food service . Thus , they are more likely to be exposed to the For one , to the shortage of personal protective equipment ( is the fact that masks and other equipment designed and produced using the default man size often leave women more at For another , although women make up 70 percent of health workers globally , men occupy 73 percent of the executive positions in global health . In short , men make the decisions . Women do the work ( Morse and Anderson 2020 ) Because women lack a place at the table when decisions are made that can have a large impact on their lives , their voices are absent , and their needs go largely unheard . Women need to be represented in leadership positions and included in decisions . Inasmuch as body politics are about interpreting bodies , it is also about controlling them . Women bodies often function as battleground sites upon which men wage war . Sometimes , as in the case of actual fare , women bodies are used to send messages of male domination and conquest to other men . In the conflict between the Bosnian Muslims and the Serbs , for example , Serbs forced fathers to castrate their sons or molest their daughters they humiliated and raped ( often impregnating ) young women . Theirs Serbs was a deliberate policy of destruction and degradation destruction so this avowed enemy race Bosnian Muslims would have no homes to which to return dation so the former inhabitants would not stand thus would not dare again territory . Power 2002 , 251 )

68 GLOBAL OF THE BODY Girls and women bodies are also sites upon which battles are waged supposedly in their honor . The supposed need to protect girls and women are at the heart of the debate about the transgender bathroom usage and immigration policies in the United States . In 2016 , when Target announced that it would allow transgender team members and guests to use the restrooms and dressing rooms that corresponded to their gender identity , the decision was met with calls from conservative groups For a boycott . After a man exposed himself in front of a young girl at a Target store in 2018 , evangelist Franklin Graham took to ter to call , once again , for a boycott of the store . While Graham claims to be acting in defense of women , he conveniently overlooks the precarious and often dangerous situation that transgender women and girls , whose bodies are policed by violence because they are thought to deviate from normative ideas about and femininity , must navigate in performing an act as basic and necessary as going to the room . Graham outrage over Target transgender bathroom policy is also a red herring that intentionally and disingenuously transgender women and girls with pedophiles and sexual predators ( 2021 ) Documenting Gender by Rebecca Lambert Gender dysphoria is a serious issue affecting many transgender people across the world . The American Psychiatric Association gender dysphoria as psychological distress that results from an between one sex assigned at birth and one gender As a way to raise awareness around the challenges that the trans community faces and help others through similar experiences , the Korean American photographer created a photo series titled Documenting The series combines interviews with photography to share the lived experiences of people dealing with gender dysphoria . The photos represented moments in people lives or general feelings associated with the experience of gender dysphoria . math notes that the project is not just about gender dysphoria but also gender euphoria , and focuses on the feelings and experiences that have allowed people to understand their own centered the trans community in this project and created a visual representation that is meant to support and empower trans people in their own lives . To out more about the project , visit .

GLOBAL OF THE BODY 69 a moon Using the right pronouns for people is a way to demonstrate respect and Much of the debate around immigration and immigration reform is rooted in rhetoric that focuses on the need to protect women and girls from harm . In a speech announcing his plan to run for president , Trump raised the specter of the immigrant rapist When Mexico sends its people , they re not sending their best . They re not sending you . They re sending people that have lots of problems , and they re bringing those problems with us . They re bringing drugs . They re bringing crime . They re rapists . And some , I assume , are good people ( Ross 2016 ) In order to discourage asylum seekers from entering the country during the Trump tion , undocumented families were forcibly separated at the border , the children detained in cages , teenage migrants who were pregnant as a result of rape were being denied access to abortion services , and the women were coerced into undergoing sterilization procedures ( 2020 ) Women reproductive health and rights remain one of the most contested battleground sites . Around the globe , abortion rights are under attack with legislative efforts to restrict , outlaw , and criminalize abortion activities . In the United States , the death of US Supreme Ruth highlighted the precariousness of Roe and the legal protections it has afforded women in need of abortion care . In January 2021 , Poland enacted a ban on abortion . Even before the most recent law , Poland already had one of Europe most restrictive abortion laws With the procedure legal in only three instances fetal abnormalities , pregnancies resulting from rape or incest , and threats to a woman life . The latter two remain legal . But with of abortions performed in the country last year because of fetal abnormalities , the ban would outlaw abortion in most cases and critics say many women will resort to illegal procedures or travel abroad to obtain abortions . and 2021 )

70 i GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY The Hazards of Innovating Ruth and Constitutions Worldwide by Shannon In September 2020 , US Supreme Court Justice Ruth died and left a gaping hole not only in the US Supreme Court , but also in the ranks of legal champions of human rights for all als . As a young lawyer , argued a number cases , carefully chosen to create a web of judicial precedence on which lawyers could argue and judges could rule in favor of women , ties , and lesbian , gay , bisexual , trans , queer , or intersex plus ( people , even though none of these groups have protected rights in the US Constitution . Eventually , as she would come to be known ) was nominated to the Supreme Court where she championed human rights until her death . In 2004 , was present in South Africa at the inauguration of their constitution after the end of apartheid ( a system of race segregation ) In 2006 , after the Arab Spring uprising , she was in Egypt and noted to the press that as Egypt was writing a new constitution , she would recommend looking to the South African constitution . Backlash ensued . The following day she released a written speech on her full thoughts on the matter , noting that while US justices can not look to external laws when forming court decisions , today the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and newer constitutions like South Africa exist and , ensuring human rights not guaranteed in our founding documents . understood this dilemma we now face . The world has learned from us and improved on our pioneering beliefs , but how do we take the next steps to build on these in our current times ?

In response to news of the Polish government decision , proponents of the bill took to the streets to protest even though the country was experiencing a surge of new cases . The protests in Poland are being hailed as transformative some are calling it the cardboard revolution in reference to the made placards that have become a distinctive feature of the protests ( and 2020 )

GLOBAL OF THE BODY 71 Your Body CI Battleground Poster Resurfaces in Poland by Shannon Symbols hold power . Barbara Your Body Is a Battleground poster , first created to defend Roe LY . at the 1989 Women March in Washington , has become the visual symbol in Poland . Poland has some of the strictest abortion laws in Europe . Most Poles support less restrictive abortion laws , but the Catholic Church backs the conservative government and stricter controls over women health care . In October 2020 the Constitutional Court , backed by the Catholic Church , ruled that the 1993 law allowing abortion for severe and irreversible fetal abnormalities ( 98 percent of abortions in 2019 ) is unconstitutional . recently told News in an email , It is both tragic and predictable that the brutal that led to my producing this image so many decades ago are still at work controlling women bodies and their access to reproductive care . The structures of power and containment are relentless in their of and Asked why she is continuing to print posters in cooperation with Center for Contemporary Art to defend the rights of women , replied , the urgent and brave protesting of marginalized , and newly empowered bodies is an insistent threat to the dominant and extremist of religion , power , and politics in Poland . The brazen hypocrisy of the Church and its predictable with the political right make for a grotesque dance of male bonding and resolute abuse Every day , girls and women engage in subversive and outright acts of activism , resistance , and rebellion as they to gain autonomy over their lives and bodies . They do this by breaking into , thereby shattering glass ceilings . In January 2021 , Kamala Harris made history on a number of Fronts , becoming the woman , Black woman , and first Asian American vice president of the United States . The United States is also currently experiencing an increase in the number of people who are lesbian , gay , bisexual , trans , queer , or intersex plus ( elected to public office particularly pronounced increases were seen in the number of majors , with a 35 percent jump the number of bisexual and people , with increases of 53 percent and 71 percent , respectively and the number of transgender women serving in elected , with a 40 percent year rise ( Fitzsimmons 2020 )

72 I GLOBAL POLiTiCS OF THE BODY Naked Athena Exposes Her Body and Political Power by Shannon Portland , Oregon , became the center point of Black Lives Matter protestors and police and federal during its nightly demonstrations in 2020 . Protesting itself holds a rich history in this quirky urban area . On July 18 , 2020 , at during another night of standoff between protestors and eral sent by the Trump Administration to protect federal buildings , an unidentified woman dressed only in a face mask and cap calmly walked to the center of the street , Where rubber bullets and tear gas were . She sat , made ballet moves , and struck yoga poses . For ten minutes , police continued to shoot at the protestors behind her , and she a man who attempted to shield her . ally , she wandered home anonymously around , unharmed . Nakedness has long been considered an acceptable form of protest in Portland . In a place where everyone was wearing chemical masks and using umbrellas to fend off bullets and spray , however , her nakedness was a shocking display of vulnerability . In summer 2020 , as an , I stayed up late each night to watch the bravery , stamina , and occasional stupidity who caught the ire of an oppressive presidential administration . In a world where men and religion compulsively seek to control female bodies , the use of a naked body by a woman in political protest unhinged men and exposed their lack of understanding and their Fear . Body politics are powerful voices . Girls and women also use their bodies to shatter stereotypical and outdated notions of beauty . The rise of body positive and Fat on social media sites such as Twitter , Instagram , and showing Female bodies living and loving life , wearing Fashionable clothes , and simply taking up space pushes ( against the notion that fat bodies are shameful and need to be hidden away . Feminist Protest Performance in Chile by Rebecca Lambert Las Collective is a Chilean feminist group that uses art to resist violence against Women and oppressive state structures . The group gained popularity in 2019 when their song Un 53 en Tu Camino ( A Rapist in Your Path ) gained international attention . Las called For feminists

GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY I 73 around the world to gather and protest violence against women , resulting in crowds of women across the globe coming together to sing the song . The song is a feminist anthem that challenges the violence of the patriarchy , including rape , and . Members of the collective include Lea Paula and they performed their song in public for the first time in November 2019 at Chile Supreme Court building . In May 2020 , Las collaborated with Pussy Riot , a Russian feminist protest performance group , to release a song highlighting the increase in domestic violence during the pandemic ( Front Line Defenders ) The national police filed a lawsuit against the collective accusing them of inciting , but the case was dismissed in January 2021 . In Chile , where violence has reached epidemic proportions ( 2020 ) women lead the resistance efforts . The song A Rapist in Your Path ( 2019 ) which has become an emblem of the movement in Chile as well as Colombia , France , Mexico , Spain , and the United Kingdom , depicts a world in which state oppression mirrors sexual violence , and singles out police , judges and the president as accomplice in the aggression ( 2020 ) In 2016 , a captured an image of Evans , a nurse from Pennsylvania who traveled to Baton Rouge , Louisiana , to protest the extralegal killing of Alton Sterling and at the hands of police . The iconic photo depicts Evans , clad in nothing more than a summer dress and Hats , being rushed by officers in full riot gear . During the summer of 2020 , women around the world joined Black Lives ter protests in response to the killings of Americans George Floyd , Taylor , and . In Portland , Oregon , a group of women called Moms United for Black Lives ( formerly Wall of Moms ) stood in solidarity in front of Black Lives Matter protestors , shielding them from tear gas and the use of excessive force by police . Girls and women literally put their bodies on the line in the for der equality , social justice , and political change . Their activism and resistance bring to mind the sion of Truth Ain I a Woman ?

if the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down all alone , these women ought to be able to turn it back , and get it right side up again ! And now they is asking to do it , the men better let them ( Sojourner Truth Memorial Committee ,

74 i GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY Learning Activities . Butts discusses the case of Frances Gage , who fictionalized the text and the incidents the day on which Sojourner Truth gave her famous speech . In Gage version of the speech , Truth says , Ain I a woman ?

But in the version of the speech that scholars consider to be the most accurate , Truth says , I am a woman Using the terms and concepts from this chapter , consider the between the question , Ain tI a woman ?

and the statement , I am a woman Which seems more rhetorically powerful ?

Why ?

Why might Gage , a white woman , prefer her version ?

Take a look at the website , which includes videos of Dutch women reading Truth speech in order to demonstrate to viewers what Truth might have sounded like . What do you learn about the speech when listening to it performed by speakers ?

Butts discusses at length the ways that bodies are and socialized as male or female , even before babies are born . What examples does she provide ?

Can you provide additional examples ?

What are the implications of menstruation and menopause on women lives ?

Can you think of representations of menstruation and menopause ?

What are they ?

What do they communicate about menstruating or women ?

Butts discusses the ways that body politics are about controlling bodies . What examples does she vide ?

What examples can you add ?

How are queer and trans bodies and voices represented in this discussion of body politics ?

Use the information you learned in this chapter to build on the discussion of queer and trans bodies from the previous chapter . Working in a small group , add these key terms to your glossary body politics , body rules .

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76 GLOBAL POLITICS OF THE BODY , Lulu . 2019 . Woman Who Popularized Parties Says Her Views on der Have . July 28 , Grace and . 2015 . Season , episode , The Produced by . May , Gross , Terry . 2016 . How China Policy Led to Forced Abortions , 30 Million . February , Hull , Gloria ) Patricia , and Barbara Smith , 2015 . All the Women Are White , All Blade Are Men , of Blade Studies , ed . New York Feminist Press at . Isabella , and . 2021 . Abortion Ban Takes Effect in Poland and Thousands New York . January 27 , Leslie , ane , Andrei , Meredith Meyer , and Edward . 2015 . Expectations of Underlie Gender across Academic Science 347 , no . 6219 , Maya . 2020 . Immigration Detention and Coerced Sterilization History Tragically Repeats American Civil Liberties Union . September 29 , 2020 . Our Role Is Central More Than Chilean Women to March in Huge . March , and Gloria , 2015 Bridge Called My by Radical of Color , ed . New York Kitchen Table Women of Color Press . Morse , Michelle , and Grace Anderson . 2020 . The Shadow Pandemic How the Crisis Is Exacerbating Gender United Nations Foundation . April 14 , Morton , Richard , Jonathan Stone , and Rama Singh . 2013 . Mate Choice and the Origin of Computational Biology , no .

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The . March 29 , Shaw , Carolyn Martin . 2021 . Body Encyclopedia of Race and Racism , updated February 24 , Sojourner Truth Memorial Committee . Sojourner Words and Accessed February 19 , 2015 . when you appropriate black Features and culture and fail to use ur position of power to help black Americans by directing attention towards ur wigs Instagram . July 13 , 2015 . Stephanie . 2016 . The Simple Reason For the Gender Pay Gap Work Done by Women Is Still Valued World Economic Forum . April 12 ,

78 I GLOBAL OF THE BODY , Georgina , Karen , Johanna , and Laurel , 2013 . Body In The Oxford Handbook of Gender and Politic . Oxford Oxford University Press . Abigail . 2021 . The Real Threat to Women Sports Isn Trans Athletes . It Sexually tory Mother Jones . February 26 , Image Body Positive by is licensed under Photo by Billie on Instagram Dost by , Photo by on Twitter post by Rise Up Rebels , Sept 20 , 2020 , 17 Photo by on Photo by Sharon on