Essentials of Geographic Information Systems Chapter 10 GIS Project Management

Chapter 10 GIS Project Management As Chapter Cartographic Principles moved past the technical aspects of a geographic information system ( GIS ) and into the artistic skills needed by , this chapter continues in that vein by introducing effective GIS project management solutions that commonly arise in the modern workplace . GIS users typically start their careers performing tasks such as digitizing vast analogue or error checking voluminous metadata files . However , adept cartographers will soon themselves promoted through the ranks and possibly into management positions . Here , they will be tasked with an assortment of activities such as overseeing work groups , interfacing with clients , creating budgets , and managing . As become increasingly common in today business world , so too must cartographers become adept at managing GIS projects to maximize effective work strategies and minimize waste . Similarly , as GIS projects begin to take on more complex and ambitious goals , GIS project managers will only become more important and integral to address the upcoming challenges of the job at hand . URL books 239

Project Management Basics LEARNING OBJECTIVE . The objective of this section is to achieve a basic understanding of the role of a project manager in the lifecycle of a GIS project . Project management is a fairly recent professional endeavor that is growing rapidly to keep pace with the increasingly complex job market . Some readers may equate management with the posting of artwork that lines the walls of corporate headquarters across the nation ( Figure ) These posters often depict a multitude of falling while forming some odd geometric shape , under which the poster is titled Another is a beautiful photo of a landscape titled , Clearly , any job that is easy enough that its workers can be motivated by a pretty picture is a job that will either soon be done by computers or shipped overseas . In reality , proper project management is a complex task that requires a broad knowledge base and a variety of skills . Figure URL books (

Management is more than posting vapid , artwork such as this in the place . The Project Management Institute ( Standards Committee describes project management as the application of knowledge , skills , tools , and techniques to project activities in order to meet or exceed stakeholder needs and To assist in the understanding and implementation of project management , has written a book devoted to this subject titled , A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge , also known as the Guide ( 2008 ) This section guides the reader through the basic tenets of this text . The primary stakeholders in a given project include the project manager , project team , and . As project manager , you will be required to identify and solve potential problems , issues , and questions as they arise . Although much of this section is applicable to the majority of information technology ( IT ) projects , GIS projects are particularly challenging due to the large storage , integration , and performance requirements associated with this particular . GIS projects , therefore , tend to have elevated levels of risk compared to standard IT projects . Project management is an integrative effort whereby all of the project pieces must be aligned properly for timely completion of the work . Failure anywhere along the project timeline will result in delay , or outright failure , of the project goals . To accomplish this daunting task , process groups and nine project management knowledge areas have been developed to meet project objectives . These process groups and knowledge areas are described in this section . BOK Process Groups The five project management process groups presented here are described separately , but realize that there is typically a large degree of overlap among each of them . Initiation , the first process group , defines and authorizes a particular project or project phase . This is the point at which the scope , available resources , schedule , and goals are decided . Initiation is typically out of the hands of the project management team and , as such , requires a to approve a given course of action . This approval comes to the project manager in the URL books 241

form of a project charter that provides the authority to utilize organizational resources to address the issues at hand . The planning process group determines how a newly initiated project phase will be carried out . It focuses on defining the project scope , gathering information , reviewing available resources , identifying and analyzing potential risks , developing a management plan , and estimating timetables and costs . As such , all stakeholders should be involved in the planning process group to ensure comprehensive feedback . The planning process is also iterative , meaning that each planning step may positively or negatively affect previous decisions . If changes need to be made during these iterations , the project manager must revisit the plan components and update those activities . This iterative methodology is referred to as rolling wave The executing process group describes those processes employed to complete the work outlined in the planning process group . Common activities performed during this process group include directing project execution , acquiring and developing the project team , performing quality assurance , and distributing information to the stakeholders . The executing process group , like the planning process group , is often iterative due to in project ( timelines , productivity , unanticipated risk ) and therefore may require throughout the lifecycle of the project . The monitoring and controlling process group is used to observe the project , identify potential problems , and correct those problems . These processes run concurrently with all of the other process groups and therefore span the entire project lifecycle . This process group examines all proposed changes to the project and approves only those that do not alter the overall , stated goals of the project . Some of the specific activities and actions monitored and controlled by this process group include the project scope , schedule , cost , output quality , reports , risk , and stakeholder interactions . Finally , the closing process group essentially terminates all of the actions and activities undertaken during the four previous process groups . This process group includes handing off all pertinent to the proper recipients and the formal completion of all contracts with the . This process group is also important to signal the that no more charges will be made , and they can now reassign the project staff and organizational resources as needed . URL books 242

BOK Project Management Knowledge Areas Each of the aforementioned process groups is available for use with nine different knowledge areas . These knowledge areas comprise those subjects that project managers must be familiar with to successfully complete a given project . A brief description of each of these nine knowledge areas is provided here . Project integration management describes the ability of the project manager to identify , define , combine , unify , and coordinate the various project activities into a coherent whole ( 2008 ) It is understood by senior project managers that there is no single way to successfully complete this task . In reality , each manager must apply their specific skills , techniques , and knowledge to the job at hand . This knowledge area incorporates all five of the process groups . Project scope management entails an understanding of not only what work is required to complete the project but also what extraneous work should be excluded from project . Defining the scope of a project is usually done via the creation of a scope plan document that is distributed among team members . This knowledge area incorporates the planning , as well as the monitoring and controlling process groups . Project time management takes into account the fact that all projects are subject to certain time constraints . These time constraints must be analyzed and an overall project schedule must be developed based on inputs from all project stakeholders ( see Section Scheduling for more on scheduling ) This knowledge area incorporates the planning , as well as the monitoring and controlling process groups . Project cost management is focused not only with determining a reasonable budget for each project task but also with staying within the defined budget . Project cost management is often either very simple or very complex . Particular care needs to be taken to work with the as they will be funding this effort . Therefore , any changes or augments to the project costs must be vetted through the prior to initiating those changes . This knowledge area incorporates the planning , as well as the monitoring and controlling process groups . URL books 243

. Project quality management identifies the quality standards of the project and determines how best to satisfy those standards . It incorporates responsibilities such as quality planning , quality assurance , and quality control . To ensure adequate quality management , the project manager must evaluate the expectations of the other stakeholders and continually monitor the output of the various project tasks . This knowledge area incorporates the planning , executing , and monitoring and controlling process groups . Project human resource management involves the acquisition , development , organization , and oversight of all team members . Managers should attempt to include team members in as many aspects of the task as possible so they feel loyal to the work and invested in creating the best output possible . This knowledge area incorporates the planning , executing , and monitoring and controlling process groups . Project communication management describes those processes required to maintain open lines of communication with the project stakeholders . Included in this knowledge area is the determination of who needs to communicate with whom , how communication will be maintained ( letter reports , phone , etc . how frequently contacts will be made , what barriers will limit communication , and how past communications will be tracked and archived . This knowledge area incorporates the planning , executing , and monitoring and controlling process groups . Project risk management and mitigates risk to the project . It is concerned with analyzing the severity of risk , planning responses , and monitoring those identified risks . Risk analysis has become a complex undertaking as experienced project managers understand that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of Risk management involves working with all team members to evaluate each individual task and to minimize the potential for that risk to manifest itself in the project or deliverable . This knowledge area incorporates the planning , as well as the monitoring and controlling process groups . Project procurement management , the final knowledge area , outlines the process by which products , services , results are acquired from outside the project team . This includes selecting business partners , managing contracts , and closing contracts . These contracts are legal documents supported by the force of law . Therefore , the fine print must be read and understood to ensure that no confusion arises between the two parties entering into the agreement . This URL books 244

knowledge area incorporates the planning , executing , monitoring and controlling , and closing process groups . Project Failure Murphy Law of Project Management states that no major project is completed on time , within budget , and with the same staff that started not expect yours to be the . It has been estimated that only 16 percent of fully implemented information technology projects are completed on time and within budget ( The Standish Group International 2000 ) These failed projects result in an estimated loss of over 81 billion every year ! David discusses the reasons for these failures in his web feature titled , Your Mission , Should You Choose to Accept It Project Management Excellence ( features ) The noted cause for project failure is poor planning . Every project must undergo some type of feasibility study to determine the purpose of the project and the employed to complete it . A feasibility study is basically used to determine whether or not a project should be given the green It outlines the project mission , goals , objectives , scope , and constraints . A project may be deemed unfeasible for a variety of reasons including an unacceptable level of risk , unclear project requirements , disagreement among clients regarding project objectives , missing key stakeholders , and unresolved political issues . A second cause for project failure is lack of corporate management support . Inadequate staffing and funding , as well as weak executive sponsorship on the part of the client , will typically result in a project with little chance of success . One of the most important steps in managing a project will be to determine which member of the client team is championing your project . This individual , or group of individuals , must be kept abreast of all major decisions related to the project . If the client project champion loses interest in or contact with the effort , failure is not far . A third common cause of project failure is poor project management . A project manager should have ample experience , education , and leadership abilities , in addition to being a skilled negotiator , communicator , problem solver , planner , and organizer . Despite the fact that managers with this URL books 245

ranging expertise are both uncommon and expensive to maintain , it only takes a failed project or two for a client to learn the importance of securing the proper person for the job at hand . The cause of project failure is a lack of client focus and the lack of the participation . The client must be involved in all stages of the lifecycle of the project . More than one GIS project has been completed and delivered to the client , only to discover that the product was neither what the client envisioned nor what the client wanted . Likewise , the , which may or may not be the client , is the most important participant in the survival of the project . The must participate in all stages of project development . The creation of a wonderful GIS tool will most likely go unused if the user can a better or more solution to their needs elsewhere . KEY TAKEAWAYS Project managers must employ a wide range of activities and actions to achieve the overall goals of the project . These actions are broken down into five process groups initiation , planning , executing , monitoring and controlling , and closing . The activities and actions described in this section are applied to nine management knowledge areas that managers must be cognizant of to ensure that all the goals of the project will be met integration management , scope management , time management , cost management , quality management , human resource management , communication management , risk management , and procurement management . Projects can fail for a variety of reasons . Successful managers will be aware of these potential pitfalls and will work to overcome them . EXERCISE . As a student , you are constantly tasked with completing assignments for your classes . Think of one of your recent assignments as a project that you , as a project ( assignment ) manager , completed . Describe how you utilized a sampling of the project management process groups and knowledge areas to complete that assigned task . The Standish Group International . 2000 . Our Blog . URL books 245

GIS Project Management Tools and Techniques LEARNING OBJECTIVE . The objective of this section is to review a sampling of the common tools and techniques available to complete GIS project management tasks . As a project manager , you will that there are many tools and techniques that will assist your efforts . While some of these are packaged in a geographic information system ( GIS ) many are not . Others are mere concepts that managers must be mindful of when overseeing large projects with a multitude of tasks , team members , clients , and . This section outlines a sampling of these tools and techniques , although their implementation is dependent on the individual project , scope , and requirements that arise therein . Although these topics could be sprinkled throughout the preceding chapters , they are not concepts whose mastery is typically required of GIS analysts or technicians . Rather , they constitute a suite of skills and techniques that are often applied to a project after the basic GIS work has been completed . In this sense , this section is used as a platform on which to present novice GIS users with a sense of future pathways they may be led down , as well as providing hints to other potential areas of study that will complement their nascent GIS knowledge base . Scheduling One of the most difficult and components of project management for many is the need to oversee a large and diverse group of team members . While this text does not cover tips for getting along with others , ensuring that each project member is on task and up to date is an excellent way to reduce potential problems associated with a complex project . To achieve this , there are several tools available to track project schedules and goal . The chart ( named after its creator , Henry ) is a bar chart that is used for tracking tasks throughout the project lifecycle . Additionally , charts show the of interrelated tasks and focus on the start and completion dates for each task . charts will typically represent the estimated task completion time in one color and the actual time to completion in a second URL books 247

color ( Figure Chart ) This color coding allows project members to rapidly assess the project and identify areas of concern in a timely fashion . Figure ( hart Item Month Month Month Month A Month Month Month Month Month Month Month Month 12 ) i Applicant Prepared ii Prepare View ( Review and Technical Studies Revisions lo Technical Study I Notice , uf 51 ?

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Corrections NOF Circulation Period for ( Public Scoping Meeting Prepare Administrative EL Prepare Administrative Print Cu Dian Em ( i , Corrections ( i . Review of Elk ( wis ) of Elk ( Public Review Period Prepare Final Prepare Response In min Circulation Response ID ( Prepare Mitigation Monitoring Program Prepare Findings Review . Findings and ( Public Hearing process Planning Commission Hearing Board Hearing PERT ( Program Evaluation and Review Technique ) charts are similar to charts in that they are both used to coordinate task completion for a given project ( Figure PERT Chart ) PERT charts focus more on the events of a project than on the start and completion dates as seen with the charts . This methodology is more often used with very large projects where adherence to strict time guidelines is more important than monetary considerations . PERT charts include the of the projects critical path . After estimating the and scenario regarding the time to all tasks , the critical path outlines the sequence of events that results in the longest potential duration for the project . Delays to any of the critical path tasks will result in a net delay to project completion and therefore must be closely monitored by the project manager . Figure PERT URL books 248

A ho There are some advantages and disadvantages to both the and PERT chart types . charts are preferred when working with small , linear projects ( with less than thirty or so tasks , each of which occurs sequentially ) Larger projects ( will not fit onto a single display , making them more difficult to visualize , and ( quickly become too complex for the information therein to be related effectively . charts can also be problematic because they require a strong sense of the entire project timing before the task has even been committed to the page . Also , charts don take correlations between separate tasks into account . Finally , any change to the scheduling of the tasks in a chart results in having to recreate the entire schedule , which can be a and experience . PERT charts also suffer from some drawbacks . For example , the time to completion for each individual task is not as clear as it is with the chart . Also , large project can become very complex and span multiple pages . Because neither method is perfect , project managers will often use and PERT charts simultaneously to incorporate the benefits of each methodology into their project . Working with CAD Data While a GIS commands a large swath of the mapping market share , it is not the only cartographic player in town . GIS , as you now hopefully understand , is primarily a mapping solution . design ( CAD ) on the other hand , is a mapping URL books 249

solution adopted by many cartographers engineers in particular . Historically speaking , points , lines , and in a CAD system do not link to attributes but are mere drawings representing some reality . CAD software , however , has recently begun to incorporate smart features whereby attribute information is explicitly linked to the spatial representations . CAD is typically used on many projects related to surveying and civil engineering work . For example , creating a cadastral map for a housing development is a complex matter with a fine scale of exactitude required to ensure , for example , that all electrical , sewer , transportation , and gas lines meet at precise locales ( Figure CAD Drawing of a Conceptual Land Development Project ) An error of inches , in either the vertical or horizontal dimension , could result in a need for a major plan redesign that may cost the client an inordinate amount of time and money . Too many of these types of errors , and you and your engineer may soon be looking for a new job . URL books 250

Figure CAD Drawing Conceptual Land Regardless , the CAD drawing used to create these development plans is usually only concerned with the local information in and around the project site that directly affects the construction of the housing units , such as local elevation , soil , types , surface water , and groundwater resources . Therefore , local coordinate systems are typically employed by the civil engineer whereby the origin coordinate ( the , point ) is based off of some nearby landmark such as a manhole , hydrant , stake , or some other survey control point . While this is acceptable for engineers , the GIS user typically is concerned not only with local phenomena but also with tying the project into a larger world . For example , if a development project impacts a natural in the state of California , agencies such as the US Army Corps of Engineers ( a nationwide government agency ) California Department of URL books ) 251

Fish and Game ( a statewide government agency ) and the Regional Water Quality Control Board ( a local government agency ) will each exert some regulatory requirements over the developer . These agencies will want to know where the originates , where it to , where within the length of the the development project occurs , and what percentage of the will be impacted . These concerns can only be addressed by looking at the project in the larger context of the surrounding watershed ( within which the project occurs . To accomplish this , external , standardized GIS must be brought to bear on the project ( national river reaches , stream and rain gauges , habitat maps , national soil surveys , and regional maps ) These will normally be to some global standard and therefore will not automatically overlay with the engineers local CAD data . As project manager , it will be your teams duty to import the CAD data ( typically , or format ) and align it exactly with the other , GIS data layers . While this has not been an easy task historically , sophisticated tools are being developed by both CAD and GIS software packages to ensure that they play nicely with each other . For example , software package contains a that allows users to shift , pan , resize , rotate , and add control points to assist in the realignment of CAD data . Application Development As project manager , you may discover that the GIS software package employed by your is missing some basic functionality that would greatly enhance the productivity of your team . In these cases , it may be worthwhile to create your own GIS application ( GIS applications are either GIS software packages or of a preexisting GIS software package that are made to meet some specific project need . These applications can range from simple ( apply a standard color set and text guidelines to mapped features ) to complex ( sort layers , select features based on a set of rules , perform a spatial analysis , and output a map ) Some of the more simple applications can be created by using the canned tool sets and functionality provided in the GIS software . For example , software package includes a macro language called Model Builder that allows users with no knowledge of programming languages create a series of URL books 252

automated tasks , also called , which can be chained together and executed multiple times to reduce the redundancy associated with many types of GIS analyses . The more complex applications will most likely require the use of the GIS software native macro language or to write original code using some compatible programming language . To return to the example of products , provides the ability to develop and incorporate programs , called scripts , into to standard platform . These scripts can be written in the Python , Script , and programming languages . While you may want to create a GIS application from the ground up to meet your project needs , there are many that have already been developed . These applications , many of which are open source , may be employed by your project team to reduce the time , money , and headache associated with such an effort . A sampling of the GIS applications written for the of programming languages are as follows ( Ramsey 2007 ) Open Source ( application developed to provide a full suite of analysis and viewing tools across platforms . Open Source Software Image Map is an application developed to efficiently process very large raster images . GRASS ( oldest GIS product , GRASS was developed by the US Army for complex data analysis and modeling . popular Internet map server that renders GIS data into cartographic map products . GIS Viewing environment for the operating system . application that adds spatial data analysis and manipulation functionality to the database program . Generic Mapping Tools provides a suite of data manipulation and graphic generation tools that can be chained together to create complex data analysis URL books 253

GIS applications , however , are not always created from scratch . Many of them incorporate shared libraries that perform functions such as format support , and of coordinate systems . A sampling of these libraries is as follows . Data Abstraction Simple Features Reference Implementation is a compilation of translators for raster and vector data formats . compilation of projection tools capable of transforming different cartographic projection systems , and data points . Geometry Engine , Open Source is a compilation of functions for processing linear geometry . tool kit for developing visually appealing maps from preexisting types ( TIFF , Feature Data Objects is similar to , although more complex than , in that it provides tools for manipulating , translating , and analyzing While the applications and libraries noted earlier are common due to their extensive time in development , newer language families are supported as well . For example , Java has been used to develop unique applications ( JUMP , and ) from its libraries ( and Topology Suite ) while applications ( are a new but powerful application option that support their own libraries ( as well as the libraries . Map Series A project manager will often be required to produce paper digital maps of the project site . These maps will typically include standard information such as a title , north arrow , scale bar , corporate contact information , data source , and so forth . This is simple if the site is small enough that the pertinent mapped features can be resolved on a single map . However , problems arise if the site is exceedingly large , follows a linear pathway ( highway improvement projects ) or is composed of distant , noncontiguous site URL books 254

locales . In these cases , the manager will need to create a series of easily referenced and reproduced maps that are at the exact same scale , have minimal overlap , and maintain consistent collar material throughout . To accomplish this task , a map series can be employed to create standardized maps from the GIS ( Map Book for Data Driven Pages for 10 ) A map series is essentially a document created by dividing the overall data frame into unique tiles based on a grid . Figure Project Site Tiled into an Output Series shows an example of a map series that divides a project site into a grid of similar tiles . Figure Output from a Map Series shows the standardized maps produced when that series is printed . While these maps can certainly be created without the use of a map series generator , this functionality greatly assists in the organization and display of projects whose can not be represented within a single map . Figure Project Site Tiled into an Output Series Dam Driven Page Boundary oi URL books 255

Source Data available from Geological Survey , Earth Resources Observation and Science ( EROS ) Center , Sioux Falls , Figure a Map Series nan a hymn ma . a burn on a Pug Source Data available from Geological Survey , Earth Resources Observation and Science ( EROS ) Center , Sioux Falls , Transformations URL books 256

Project managers must be mindful of the transition from mapped units to locations . As discussed in Chapter Data , Information , and Where to Find Them , Section Data about Data , transforming the earth to two dimensions necessarily results in both accuracy and precision errors . While projects that cover a small areal extent may not noticeably suffer from this error , projects that cover a large areal extent could run into substantial problems . When surveyors measure the angles and distances of features on the earth for input into a GIS , they are taking ground measurements . However , spatial in a GIS are based on a coordinate system , referred to as grid measurements . In the case of angles , ground measurements are taken relative to some north standard such as true north , grid north , or magnetic north . Grid measurements are always relative to the coordinate system grid north . Therefore , grid north and ground north may well need to be rotated in order to align correctly . In the case of distances , two sources of error may be present ( scale error and ( elevation error . Scale error refers to the phenomenon whereby points measured on the earth ( ground measurement ) must first be translated onto the coordinate systems ellipsoid ( mean sea level ) and then must be translated to the grid plane ( Figure Transformation ) Basically , scale error is associated with the move from three to two dimensions and is remedied by applying a scale factor ( to any measurements made to the . Figure ' bI Ground Ellipsoid ( Sea Level ) URL books ) a 257

In addition to scale error , elevation error becomes increasingly pronounced as the project site elevation begins to rise . Consider Figure Grid Versus Ground Measurements , where a line measured as feet at altitude must be scaled down to the earth ellipsoid measurement , then scaled again to fit the coordinate system grid plane . Each such transition requires compensation , referred to as the elevation factor ( EF ) The and EF are often combined into a single combination factor ( that is automatically applied to any measurements taken from the GIS . Figure Grid ( Ground Distance ' YOU Geodetic Distance Grid Plane Grid Distance Center of Earth In addition to EF and errors , care must be taken when surveying areas greater than miles in length . At these distances , slight errors will begin to compound and may create noticeable discrepancies . In particular , projects whose length crosses over coordinate systems zones ( Universal Transverse zones or State Plane zones ) are likely to suffer from unacceptable errors . While the tools and techniques outlined in this section may be considered beyond the scope of an introductory text on , these pages represent some of the concerns that will arise during your tenure as a GIS project manager . Although you will not need a comprehensive understanding of these issues for your first jobs , it is important that you understand that becoming a competent GIS user will require a skill set , both technically and . URL books 258

KEY TAKEAWAYS As project manager , you will need to utilize a wide variety of tools and techniques to complete your GIS project . The tools and techniques you employ will not necessarily be included as a part of your native GIS software package . In these cases , you will need to apply all project management resources at your disposal . EXERCISE . Consider the following GIS project You are contacted by the City of Miami to determine the effect of inundation due to rise on municipal properties over the next hundred years . Assuming that the sea level will rise one meter during that time span , describe in detail the process you would take to respond to this inquiry . Assuming you have two months to complete this task , develop a timeline that shows the steps you would take to respond to the city request . In your discussion , include information pertaining to the data layers ( both raster and vector ) data sources , and data attributes needed to address the problem . Outline some of the steps that would be required to convert your baseline GIS data into layers that would address this particular problem . Upon completion of the analysis , how might you employ cartographic principals to most effectively present the data to city officials ?

Talk about potential problems that may arise during the analysis and discuss how you might go about addressing these issues . Ramsey , 2007 . The State of Open Source GIS . URL books 259