Cultural & Ethnic Studies Black Martial Artists Modernity in Pursuit of an African Fighting System

384 Chapter 16 Black Martial Artists Modernity in Pursuit of an African Fighting System in the African . Elizabeth City State University Introduction You may not wish to fight me now , sucka ! But you will . I gon na see to that ! Sayonara Who the Master ?

Shogun of The Last In contemporary martial arts and culture , the name Clan is immediately reminiscent of the African American rap group Wu Tang Clan and traditional Chinese martial arts movies . The names Shaolin and Wu Tang were made familiar to urban audiences throughout North America in the . Asian and Asian American cultures , along with African and African American cultures , were exported throughout the world by the globalization of American popular culture . Chinese martial arts movies , produced by the Shaw Brothers in Hong Kong movie studios , forged an African and Asian The Best Last Dragon Quotes , accessed May 31 , 2021 . The movie the Last Dragon was produced in 1985 by Barry Gordon . It was a comedic version of Black and Asian martial arts culture . The film became a cult classic for youth and young adults of the .

385 cultural identity that intersected Black popular culture and martial arts culture Despite the Chinese migrating to North America in the and Africans being forced into enslavement in North America as early as the , both the Chinese and Africans preserved traditional cultural systems while forging new identities and systems through the pursuit of modernity . The examination of modernity is necessary to understand the relationship between Black martial artists who use African dance and drum culture in the fighting systems developed in the African . This chapter explores the modernity of Black martial artists primarily in the United States . They were introduced to the fighting arts of Asia while resurrecting the traditional fighting arts of Africa . Black martial artists incorporate traditional African dance , drumming , and culture into new world African fighting systems and reconstruct these traditions to reflect a Black worldview , sensibilities , and cultural hegemony in the African . Black martial arts societies were organized after World War II and primarily in the urban North of the United States of America during its foundational years ( The Shaw Brothers Studio produced Chinese martial arts films for eighty Years and introduced those films to urban audiences in the United States of America in the . accessed January 28 , 2020 . Martial arts were introduced to American culture after soldiers returned from War II . The Korean War and the globalization of American society during the Vietnam War years brought Asian martial arts culture to the forefront of American society . In the Black community the first martial arts communities developed in the urban areas of the United States of America .

386 Moreover , during the Black Power era , Black martial artists looking for a meaningful purpose for their art by exploring traditional African societies , fighting theories , African mythologies , fighting societies , and popular culture . By creating their own unique forms and systems , Black artists constructed a new African or Black consciousness . In addition , this chapter will utilize and explore new developments within fighting systems , dance , and ritual Historian and scholar Kim Hewitt argues that there are some major identical cultural traits expressed in African American cultural aesthetics that intersected with authentic Black martial training systems and philosophies . Her theoretical analysis is grounded in the assumptions that the African contributed an presence to African American communities , which culminated in a unique African American expressive style , and that many kinds of martial have similar underlying philosophical practitioners have established martial arts programs . Institute includes African culture , music , dance , and African spiritual practices . is the founder and director of the Martial Arts Academy , and dances with West African Dance Company . Robert Young interviewed martial artist Professor Mo in Black Belt Magazine ( May 2019 ) titled 52 Blocks Art of Africa , Not Ait of Martial Arts Discovering the Warrior ( Oakland Boss Up , 2008 ) provides examples of documented practices and research not broadly known in the academy . Thomas A . Green Martial Arts of the World An Encyclopedia ( Santa Barbara , California , 2001 ) offers some inclusion of a global African presence in arts .

387 She focuses on variations of African American expressive cultures in the visual , kinesthetic , and musical elements related to the interactive characteristics of Black martial artists , contending if this connection makes sense we may understand the appeal of martial arts to African Americans in the and in a new ' The Black martial arts movement was not isolated , but a complementary addition to the values and principles expressed during the Black Power , Black Arts , and African cultural movements occurring during the and . Black martial artists historiography is not an essentialist or escapist phenomenon solely produced by globalization . Hewitt assumes that Black martial arts fundamentals are a result of the African , and this viewpoint is supported by Patrick theoretical approach to the African and modernity in the modern world . Manning does not believe that modernity is simply a break from the past . He defines the concept Modernity is the condition of life today and in the recent condition filled with triumphs , complexities , and disasters in industry , science , government , and communication , bringing progress , oppression , capitalism , and inequality . Modernity is a condition that is deeply felt and almost universally experienced . Too often , however , it is defined narrowly and then explained in such a fashion as to exclude Black people from it . Modernity is the overall ethos of the modern world , in economic , social , cultural , and other realms it is an exhilarating but difficult Kim Hewitt , Martial Arts Is Nothing if Not Cool Speculations on the Intersections between Martial Arts and African American Expressive culture in Afro Asia Revolutionary Political Cultural Connections Between African Americans and Asian Americans ed . by Fred Ho and Bill ( Duke University Press , 2008 ) Patrick Manning , The African A History through Culture ( New York Columbia University Press , 2010 )

388 Manning contests many of the traditional theories about Africa and modernity and chooses to view the African in a modern view of modernity that places Black people as agents in the construction of the modern He believes African and African communities should not be reduced to a sociological interpretation of modernity and historical interpretations of the modern world as footnotes , and notes that any form of the history of Africans and people of African descent , a complex story in itself , lies at the center of the history of all humanity . The tale of modernity can not fairly be told without full attention to the African continent and peoples of African Manning categorizes the history of the African into four dimensions the lives of Black communities at home and abroad , their relationship to hegemonic powers ( both under the hierarchy of slavery and in the unequal circumstances of emancipation society ) their relations with communities of other racial , and the various types of mixing of Black and other His framework establishes a set of guidelines to examine the dialectical response to how African culture changed over time ( causation ) its relationship to other cultural motifs ( settlements ) the social , Placing African people and people of the African as the subject provides agency in the discovery of the accomplishments of people within the culture and society that they occupy . xiv . 10 , See Joseph Harris Global Dimensions of the African ( Washington , Howard University Press , 1982 ) and Michael Gomez , Reversing A History of the African New Approaches to History ( NY Cambridge University Press , 2005 )

389 construction of race ( identity ) and the given polity in which Africans have had to navigate . The examination of Black martial artists in the African , and in North America particularly , can not be separated from the foundation of traditional African Manning continues to analyze Black global interactions by framing Black people as the subject being studied by reflecting on the theme of a history through African culture is the foundation of African culture and global Black identity . African assumes there is an overall set of practices and identities shared by people of Africa and , perhaps , the African , the term can be problematic because it often refers to vague , with cultural overlaps , without identifying specific cultural Manning continues to explore cultural production by examining , which is often distinctive from national or elite culture . It is within the domain of popular culture , which is often performed in the village , neighborhood , or societal subculture even when they share traits of the same society . These differences developed cultural variations in values , styles , and . Manning notes , With time , changing technology and political values gave steadily greater scope to popular 11 Throughout the African , particularly in South Carolina and South America ! martial arts systems survived from their parent African culture . Most were disguised as dance or games . Knocking and bucking and capoeira are examples with origins coming from . These systems exemplify cultural retention from traditional Africa culture . 12 , 20 .

390 culture . Larger theaters , expanded print runs , motion pictures , radio , televisions , videotapes , and the Internet have bridged the old gap between elite and popular There are four areas of human creativity that Manning uses to evaluate and define the of Black experiences and cultural production in the form of expressive culture , material culture , reflective culture , and societal culture . Expressive culture encompasses the artistic realm of Black culture in visual arts , music , literature , and other interpretations such as African dance and the movement of the body . Material culture includes the creative production of physical products in dress , architecture , and tools . Reflective culture embraces the use of philosophy , knowledge systems , theology , and epistemology . Societal culture teaches the person their role in society , traditions , and customs , along with society modeling based on age groupings from birth to eldership . The Origins of African Martial , Legends , and African History History is not everything but it a starting point Henrik Clarke Knowing the origins of African fighting systems and its relationship to African history provides a discourse for separating facts from fiction while building scholarship based on history and African fighting knowledge . Some may think that mythology 13 , 21 . 14 Quoted in Roderick Bush , The End of White World Supremacy Black and the Problem of the Color Line ( Philadelphia Temple University Press , 2009 )

391 is based on folklore , fables , fiction , or fantasy . However , Wayne Chandler wrote in Ancient Future the Teachings and Prophetic Wisdom of the Seven Hermetic Laws Egypt that most of ancient history and its approaches are linear while falling prey to Westernized . It is within the mythology of a culture where a society tells the stories of their cultural heroes and forms cultural and political tenets deemed by the constituency of a society . They can be found within the folklore and oral histories of societies throughout Chandler believes that scholarship on mythology studies needs a redefinition of the meaning of myths so it will allow a broad historical perspective than is traditionally applied to ancient belief systems . In African antiquity , mythology was an ancient mode of thinking , employing African philosophies , spiritual sciences , and indigenous to specific African It is to understand the relationship between African martial arts , its origins , and its links between antiquity and the present , which created an African historical continuum that can be used to understand the earliest civilizations , including Kush , Egypt , and Ethiopia , that brought forth knowledge to the world . explains that the African origins of martial arts were known as During his Nu Know Thyself study group tours to Egypt , explained that centered thinking should not use the term martial arts in the sense because 15 , History Dances chronicling the History of Traditional Dance ( New York , 2019 ) 16 Wayne , Ancient Future The Teachings and Prophetic Wisdom ' 55 ' Hermetic Laws Egypt ( Baltimore Black Classic Press , 1999 ) 23 .

392 it refers to Mars , the Roman god of The term is universally accepted for fighting systems throughout the world however , the term does not fully define the name of the fighting system used within traditional African societies . During a trip to the Temple of Rameses III explained that ancient Egyptians displayed the first African fighting systems and postures of African fighting forms on the pyramids walls . believes that soldiers were known to be from , referred to the Land of the 18 On the historical tour , explained that African martial history could not be fully understood without with the people of the highlands of the or the , who are currently known for their donga fighting system tracing back to the earliest African civilizations . Both Thomas Green and reference the iron bracelets with sharpened edges used by Africans known as . The bracelets are found among groups in Kenya , Ethiopia , and . The bracelets were used for using the arms to block the strikes of attackers using sweeping and blocking movements . Green also records traditional African cultures of the and the unarmed fighting cultures of African fighting systems . In , wrestling was associated with and agricultural Essential to the origins of African martial is its 17 , Explains the African Origin of Arts ( accessed January , 2020 . 19 Ibid . Without argument , modern mixed from the African continent are the most notable champions of the last decade . Ibrahim Blessing ,

393 connection to African dance . African martial arts culture , dance , and drum culture developed in the early African societies . Dances the History of Mano Dance explains that dance throughout African culture maintains a historical core with a living history that has a fluid African dance systems are inseparable from the African societies that produced them , but are also affected by modernity even while maintaining traditional elements . contends that African dances are portrayed within a system adds dimensions to the potential various uses of this primary resource . These dance systems are comprised of auxiliary items that complement the dance and facilitate a more complete understanding of the dance African dance systems are egalitarian in nature and often include music accompanied by singing , drumming , and rituals . Moreover , African martial Top 10 Best African Fighters in the Last Decade . The people of , an aggressive boxing style with military origins . Like other martial arts fighting styles , it also has a ritual before entering the sandpit , fighters began with a traditional ritual of having magical herbal mixture rubbed into incisions purposely made up and down fighters bodies , which is believed to strengthen the fighter . Senegalese wrestling called has roots in the farming and fishing communities of . Both the and fighting systems utilizes the use of music played by procession instructions . Both fighting systems use drums and songs during the matches . The playing of instruments is not uncommon to other fighting systems found in Japan or China . 16 .

394 arts must be examined within traditional African societies that incorporated the African fighting system into their specific culture , which will give meaning and comprehension of African systems while demonstrating how African dance , drumming , and martial arts convey messages from the past while creating and preserving the African dance and African drumming were not separate from the combative training incorporated into the ethos of African fighting systems . The African systems used drums and stringed instruments to create a rhythmic beat for fighting . Warriors , either individually or in groups , practiced using weapons , both for attacking and defensive movements , in conjunction with the rhythm from the percussion Ritual drumming and percussion usage were essential in training young warriors . African warriors used the dances to develop formational movements , footwork , and effective fighting techniques . Although these training patterns have been dismissed as war dances , expressive movement rather than martial drills , they actually played a central role in the training of African Evidence of African drumming and military campaigns is not heavily documented . However , in the early African communities in North America there were elements of African dance , drumming , and fighting systems that drew their origins directly from continental African societies . The Rebellion in South Carolina in 1739 consisted of enslaved Africans who shared elements of Congolese culture . During the early hours of , 15 . Green , Martial Arts of the World , 23 ,

395 the morning on September , 1739 , hundreds of enslaved Africans formed a military formation along the banks of the River to plan their escape from bondage . While the White community attended church services , the Congolese started a rebellion that lasted into the night . The coordinated Africans were documented as using their rhythmic cadence of African , combined with cries for ty ! as they marched along the river , freeing fellow ' Patrick Manning has documented that another remarkable tradition that characterizes the peoples is polyrhythmic 25 Manning believes the use of polyrhythmic drumming is an African tradition that dates back many thousands of years . Moreover , different drumming societies created modifications in rhythmic forms , drumming patterns , performance styles , and cultural variations . The talking drum is one of the most distinctive drums found in Africa and throughout the African . The talking drum is used to send signals and messages to neighbor African communities . The talking drum produces a tonal sound with different inflections that imitate using a style between the drummer and the receiver or the audience . During the Rebellion , African drums were used to communicate with other Africans to join the rebellion . The beating of African drums served as a form of literacy and Henry Louis Gates , The Encyclopedia of can and African American Experience ( New York Books Group , 1999 ) 1786 . 25 Manning , 49 .

396 and a common African vernacular understood by different ethnic groups from the same region . Within groups is used as a generic term for drums . The ubiquity of this term indicates that the migrants had drums four or five thousand years ago . Since the languages are far more ancient than their subgroup , it is likely that drums go much further back , as does the tradition of modifying drums and The power and the strategic use of African drums in organizing rebellion among Africans led to the enactment of the Negro Act of 1740 that led to the abolition of the talking drum and the use of drumming during the gathering of enslaved Africans . With the communication that talking drums gave Africans , those who rose up against slavery and utilized that technology stood a good chance of success . To destroy that military power , Europeans said had to The study of African martial arts , including that connected to drumming , and Black martial artists in the United States of America must be understood , researched , and studied using an African methodological approach . Africa must be the intellectual starting point for subjects . Black martial artists in the United States look toward Africa as a source of real or imaginative culture . Black martial artists in North America must be studied within an intersectional paradigm including race , class , gender , 26 , 49 . 27 Greg Wilson , The Drummers Moving the Spirit with Ritual and ad Drumming ( Rochester Destiny Books , 1992 ) 21 .

397 sexuality , and context within its environment ?

Black martial artists and their martial arts systems were developed and formed due to the globalization of Asian martial arts while pursuing the knowledge of . It is during this junction of culture that Black martial artists developed authentic Black martial arts systems and Pan African fighting societies incorporating African and cultures . Ritualistic African Drumming , Martial Arts , and the Movement of the Force 1989 the number of another summer sound of the funky drummer 29 Enemy Ritualistic drumming and martial arts cultures have existed for thousands of years . Obi places ritualistic drumming in the category of performance rituals . He believes that the drumming and dancing by enslaved Africans and their descendants in North America united and defined themselves as a new community via performance He contends that performance activities were nothing short of and states in the Drummer Path that the role of the drum has played a vital part in the history of African people and the lifestyle of African people at home and those brought to the New 28 and James Sweet , The rican and the , Indiana Indiana University Press , 2010 ) 29 Yusuf Jah , Lyrics of a Rap . Rhymes Mind of VOL I ( Santa Monica , CA , 2005 ) 158 . 30 Obi , Fighting for Honor The History of African Martial Art in the World ( Columbia University of South Carolina , 2008 ) 93 .

398 World generations ago . The Drummers reminds us that Africans came across the waters with more than one instrument , and that these music and Spirit sciences were used to continue the African celebration of life and sense of unity under strenuous ( to say the least ! circumstances in a strange and foreign 31 Africa is not the only culture that used drums in its martial arts or societal cultures . In Japan , the drum is characterized by its energetic playing style . The drummer plays hard and fast , involving movements often identified with Japanese martial arts . In China , the lion and dragon dance also uses Chinese drums to create a combative approach to rhythm . The lion and dragon dancer uses drum patterns to coordinate movements and maneuvers while demonstrating a combative African culture has also developed drum cultures using a variety of drums . Even though there are unlimited types of African drums , this section focuses on two West African drums called the and because both of those drums were replicated in the African . The is dated to the Malian Empire in the thirteenth century , and it was created by blacksmiths . The drum corps includes several drummers and a lead drummer who signal the other drummers with breaks Breaks are a signal , a call , or a break in the rhythm , that signifies that something different is to occur Rhythms are played simultaneously and in polyrhythmic 31 Wilson , The Drummers , xi . 32 Colin McGuire , The Rhythm of Combat Understanding the Role of Music i Performances of Traditional Chinese Martial Arts and Lion Dance in , 42 , No . 2015 ) 33 , 52 .

399 structures . The drummer has an established bond with the dancer . In martial arts , the dancer is a martial arts practitioner who uses ritualistic movements or , while following the energetic drummer rhythms . Ritualistic drumming and martial arts in the African were greatly affected by modernity . Modernity can be viewed as a societal shift away from traditional culture and values . However , both traditional African and African American cultures faced societal changes powered by a shift from an agrarian economy toward systems of capitalism , globally competitive markets , and of which contained explicit and implicit forms of racism . After World War 11 , traditional African cultural traditions , Asian martial arts culture , and Black consciousness collided as Black identity became more defined with an emerging cultural movement of civil rights . Master drummer Greg Wilson explains several guiding principles for performing traditional African and African music . He believes that there are striking parallels in martial arts and African drumming , including the use of breathing , posture , ambidexterity , peripheral awareness , and energy ( chi ) Wilson also believes that there should be exploratory paths created between martial artists and drummers so that the practitioners can learn from each other . also the importance and impact of the drummer and dancer bond . African dancers and their interaction is considered fruitful when the drummer anticipates which steps or body movements the dancer is going to implement before executes them and the drummer plays accents for the movements Greg Wilson , Spirit , Drum , Martial Arts , and Time , accessed December , 2019 .

400 simultaneously as the dancer performs Martial arts dance movements are performed in , which contain a depth of rhythmic energy . Wilson believes the artist relationship is laid by a rhythmic foundation that creates an energetic flow that allows the martial artists to transcend both time and space . Martial arts rituals are used to create group norms and to promote spirit across the ranks ( unity ) while instilling discipline and strengthening the subconscious mind . Wilson defines rituals as a set of practices that institutes an elevated state of mind enhanced by a particular vibe Ritual changes brain waves , altering ( expanding or narrowing ) one perception of interior and exterior reality . It is a universal power that unifies and instills Some drums are used to enhance spirituality through meditation and concentration . Wilson also believes that some drums are born through 37 Some drums are made using ritualistic , such as the Japanese drum , which is created from particular trees , covered with special cattle skins . The drums can only be played by initiated drummers . Wilson has witnessed that traditional African music played with string instruments , drumming , or dance invokes a state of stillness similar to Zen Buddhists who uses chants and bells to generate stillness to reach their subconscious mind . Wilson also believes that African dancing can invoke the spirit through the use of music . The vibration of the music subconsciously controls the dancer . If the dancer releases the conscious mind and allows , 70 . Wilson , Spirit , Drum , Martial Arts , and Time , 37 ,

401 the subconscious mind to flow , the movement of the dancer becomes effortless . The martial artist kata is similar to dance when the kata is performed with a Zen mindset , the energy of the martial artist flows through the kata beyond the conscious mind . Ritualistic drumming and its connection to martial arts movements create a flow of movement . All martial arts forms or dances require rhythm because without rhythm , the martial arts forms will appear to be disjointed or artless Rhythm is an inherent property of movement where , even in daily activities , its coordinating factors are highly and frequently utilized to make work less arduous , go faster , or become 33 The work songs of the chain gangs and the Negro sung during slavery are examples of semiotic movements and rhythm . The drummer inspires the martial artist to concentrate on the meaning of the kata or dance while embracing a deeper meaning of the movements performed . The relationship between the drummer and dancer creates a union consisting of energy , space , and rhythm . BLACK POWER AND BLACK AGENCY IN MARTIAL ARTS Tiger style a style , the Black Panthers practiced lens in understanding the Panthers 39 The rise of Black consciousness in the influenced the institutionalization of Black martial arts programs in the United States . The Nation of Islam and the Black , Dance The of Movement and de Nigerian Culture ( Africa World Press , 1998 ) 20 . 39 Richard Raya , Might for Right Martial Arts as a Way to Understanding the Black es Interwoven voices of local and global es , volume , Issue , Article , 2015 .

402 Panther Party advocated for programs in the Black community . Mary Aziz contends that the call for unarmed became necessary for the Black community development and for establishing community programs . Aziz believes the Nation of Islam used martial and unarmed training to build autonomy in the United States and the Nation of Islam was the first Black organization to standardize martial arts training in its During the years between 1955 and 1965 , imagery , Black martial artists , and Black community organizations received great invisibility in African American communities , government briefs , and press The Nation of Islam served as the model for creating unarmed in Black Power organizations , community survival programs , and training academies . After 1965 , Black nationalist groups incorporated martial arts and unarmed as a key feature in community programs . In the Autobiography of Malcolm , Malcolm was asked why is your Fruit of Islam being trained in judo and karate ?

Malcolm sensed the underlying influence of White supremacy and recalled saying An image of Black men learning anything suggesting seemed to terrify the white man . I turn their question around Why does judo or karate suddenly get so ominous because Black men 40 Ma am . Aziz with Em ty Rise and ( of Power Man An during the War ( Dissertation University of Michigan , 2020 )

403 study it ?

Judo and karate were studied across America in the Boy Scouts , at the YMCA , and throughout sports facilities in America . Black Nationalism and the Nation of Islam martial training provided a catalyst for promoting a martial culture . Aziz considers the Nation of Islam to be the first Black community and Black Nationalist organization to systematically practice arts . It was a progenitor and incubator for martial artists who filtered into other organizations such as the Congress of African Other Black revolutionary groups such as the US Organization ( 1965 ) the Black Panther Party ( 1966 ) and the Black Karate Federation ( 1969 ) followed the advice of Malcolm and the arts foundation provided by the Fruits of Islam . arts and programs were designed for the protection of the Black community and individual . Aziz made the distinction that Martial did not qualify as combat in the Nation of ' was not a sport it was intended to be used as a tactic to protect the Nation of Islam against the United States policing forces . More , arts training provided the preparation for securing an independent polity , allowed Black men to gain agency over their bodies , and enabled them to attain a sense of physical awareness . As a result , Aziz concluded , 42 Malcolm and Alex Haley The Autobiography of Malcolm ( New York Ba a ti Publishing Group , 1999 ) 24 . 43 Aziz , 65 . 44 .

404 Martial arts lessons became central for the vision of embodiment and Black 45 The Nation of Islam mantra provided guidance for Black martial arts organizations . Black Power scholar Richard Raya provides insight into the use of martial arts as a tactic of in the Black Panther Party . Raya was trained and practices Tae Kwon Do , a style the Black Panthers practiced . Tae Kwon Do is different from the Olympic style of fighting , particularly because Grandmaster Yun developed it to be a fighting style . Raya considers himself an insider because Tae Kwon Do is found only in the Bay Area of California . Raya introspective understanding of Tiger Style is based on the triad of Black Panther knowledge , Bay Area culture , and martial arts . He attests , there are several ways in which my affords me something of an insider perspective , as well as numerous other ways in which my renders me 45 Raya provided a historical and philosophical links between the foundations of and the martial of identity present within the Black Raya believes that Tae Kwon Do connects the historical experiences of the Tiger martial arts community , along with the Black Panthers attempt to highlight how the many aspects of the Black Panthers exist as manifestation of unified philosophy The right to exist 47 Raya archival research shows , 46 Richard Raya , Might for Right Martial Arts as a Way to Understand the Black Panthers in Interwoven Voices of Local and Global es , volume , issue ( 2015 ) 47 ,

405 that the Black Panthers implemented a program in the Intercommunal Youth Institute as part of its curriculum and programs . The program offered youth physical fitness , and . More importantly , Tae Kwon Do influenced a Black fighting style unique to Oakland . Black Power martial arts culture in California provides a West Coast historical narrative unknown to the general public . and Black Power identity also entered popular culture in the . A scene from Enter the Dragon featured famed Black artist Jim Kelly with Steve Muhammad and Donnie Williams , the founders of the Black Karate Federation ( Their unique style of karate is also represented by their mission and iconic Black nationalist karate patch . promoted Black pride within Black arts culture and was formed to provide advocacy in sport karate tournaments to fight against racism in the spout . Steven Sanders also has links to the Nation of Islam where he became a member in 1972 and changed his name to Steve Muhammad . is best known for the iconography of their Black Power karate patch . The patch is a gold fist with a red , black , and green band with a cobra at the forefront . The initials are in red and black at the bottom of the patch symbolizing Black power and pride . Black arts culture did not start with the Black Power Movement . However , the rise in Black consciousness provided the foundation for forming unarmed communities and a Black martial arts culture .

406 The Authenticity of Black Marital Arts Systems in the United States of America like a swordfight . You must think first , before you move The Mystery of Enter the . 35 Chambers 45 Black martial art systems and practices have a long heritage and legacy rooted in traditional African fighting systems . Some Black martial artists have adopted or rediscovered traditional African fighting systems and implemented them into new martial arts systems with defined fighting philosophies . In the book Heroes of the Martial Arts , acclaimed Black martial artist and actor Ron Van asks the question , Who are the Black heroes of the martial arts ?

49 For most Black martial artists , this question could be answered in two ways . First , they would name the teachers and masters they personally know and then identify with those they saw in the movies . The witnessed the impact of Chinese martial arts films and the rise of the thought movement . Bruce Lee 1973 release of Enter the Dragon featuring African American martial artists Jim Kelly and the 1979 release of the Game of Death featuring Abdul Jabbar placed Black martial artists in the latest instances of popular cultural revolution as well as its aesthetic link to the subjectivity 48 Clan , Enter the ( 35 Chambers ) Da Mystery of . 49 Ron Van , The Black Heroes of the Martial Arts ( A Publishers Group ! 1996 ) inside front cover .

407 in the latest stage of Both films intersected the imagination of Black youth coming of age in the embryonic years of hip hop culture . Rap group Public Enemy used arts dance drills in the music video Fight the Power , in which the drill team Security of the First World ( used drill formations learned from the Nation of Islam ( Fruits of Islam ) while implementing martial dance moves . Rap group Wu Tang Clan also frequently utilized martial arts forms in their music videos . explained that the alt forms of both Jeet Kune Do and hip hop share the same cultural expressions The flourishing individual expressions in hip hop and Jeet Kung are well embedded in the cultural foundations and historical legacies the African culture for hip hop and Chinese culture for Jeet Kung Black martial were introduced to Asian arts by the War II transnational Asian communities . However , by the end of the , a younger generation of Black martial artists had begun to implement Black consciousness into their worldview . Black martial artists used Asian arts to transition into arts and created authentic Black martial arts systems . At the intersection of Black arts exploration with traditional African dance , drum , and fighting cultures , a new authentic centered culture emerged in the United States of America . From Kung Fu to Hip Hop on , Revolution , and Culture ( Albany State University of New York Press , 2007 ) 171 . 177 .

408 Before I started to pursue a scholarly exploration of Black martial arts systems , I purchased a tape titled The World can Martial Arts from a Black bookstore in Norfolk , Virginia , in the early featuring the teachings of , master instructor of the Institute in Detroit , Michigan . I had no idea at the time that the study of the tape would inspire or expand my interest in the relationship between martial arts , African drumming , martial dance movements , and African examination of African fighting systems Black martial artists to the traditional African fighting systems through dance , African drumming , philosophy , and the medicinal sciences of African traditional herbal medicine . unique perspective infuses African traditional fighting cultures with Black consciousness . In 2016 , Jared Ball interviewed on his podcast Mix What Like . explained that his interest in the African martial fighting sciences coincided with the Black Power movement and influenced his interest in seeking an African attests that one of the most impactful teachers he met was Baba , the founder of the Family Dancers . It is during that connection in his pursuit for authentic African culture where his African consciousness was elevated by learning the foundation of African ' I ' EtH Id Af ' Extravaganza at Howard University African Martial Arts ?

accessed January , 2020 . 53 Jared Ball , and the African Fighting Sciences , June 16 , accessed January 25 , 2020 .

409 dance . founded the Society in 1973 in New York . The African Dancers performed at the New York World Fair in 1965 and twice for the World Body of the United Nations in 1965 and 1980 . The African Dancers are pioneers and cultural ambassadors in spreading African culture , history , philosophy , and African dance . pursuit of African fighting sciences caused him to seek out African martial arts practitioners from various African communities he met in America . He met a South African friend named , who taught him Zulu stick fighting , and he studied the Egyptian martial arts after meeting Mohammad , a teacher of the Egyptian martial arts . Moreover , it was travels to , and Gambia and his association with Baba from who provided insight into Nigerian martial arts . learned that African martial arts systems were taught and learned differently in African societies than in other martial arts cultures . African martial arts training was not separate from the culture it was embedded within the daily life activities of the student . It is customary in African American culture for young boys to engage in play fighting called . is a playful fight with two who attempt to touch their opponent face with an open hand instead of a closed fist . The skills of the boys in the group determine an informal ranking order within the group . boxing is an informal method to learn or improve boxing skills and prepares the boys for using boxing skills . The same type of informal fighting or training can be found among the pastoral societies in . African pastoral societies are one example of how African martial arts training is embedded within African society daily life .

410 The herding societies of the start training boys as early as four or five years old to manage calves and cattle greater in size and weight than themselves . The interaction with the herd at an early age trains the boys to recognize individual as dominant yet , the natural tendency of cattle to continuously test those above them as they grew stronger necessitated the maintenance of dominance through aggressive behaviors with Herding sticks are the first tool used in herding , but they are also used as a weapon . Herding training provided the foundation for culture . Herding boys spend a long time idle when watching the herd during the day . During that idle time the boys used the long hours to establish their own hierarchy among themselves through stick fighting matches These matches were part of a lifelong maintenance of mastery of stick fighting through both the throwing of sticks and dueling with them , and the practice allowed younger boys who were more skilled to rise in the pecking order of the Obi research of the pastoral communities supports experiences of witnessing the relationship between African culture and combative training . In African societies the conventional term martial arts does not describe the combative training learned through the daily rituals , rites of passages , or work . Among pastoral young men the demonstration of combative skills played a role in courting behaviors to gain favor from young women . A game called consisted of fights between pairs of boys who wished to show off before the girls . Each pair fought another Obi , 32 . 55 , 31 .

411 pair with knobkerrie sticks an even number of rounds , odd numbers being unlucky , until the vanquished pairs admitted defeat . Then each victor performed a jumping dance , called by the name of a favorite warrior , and challenged all other boys of his age group to fight Stick fighting training also prepared the males to fight as a coordinated unit when they became adult soldiers . experiences studying different African combative sciences allowed him to develop a unique martial arts perspective blending Africa systems to include the different martial dance moves learned through different African dance systems . The African dance to and its relationship connecting stick fighting and using the machete is an example . Within training were African combative elements learned from Akan , the , or , and cultures . He described this syncretism I blend them all together . I see them as one and that my own personal viewpoint as far as the martial arts of 57 The blending of African martial arts , philosophy , and cultures lead to develop the Institute . chose the name of the Institute to honor an ancient African empire called . means the loving earth and it also represents the 55 , 33 . 57 Thomas A . Green , African Roots in the Martial Arts An Interview with Ki di In Yo Journal of Alternative on the Martial Arts and Sciences , accessed December , 2019 .

412 methodology of Ansar which is the house of culture is an approach to tracing traditional African cultures origins to the Nile Valley civilizations and ( Ancient Egypt ) as its foundation . The concept of an African martial arts culture in the United States or in Africa serves to resurrect African martial arts elements , which are as universally compatible with the martial arts of Japan , China , or Korea . vision was to make African arts a part of African American martial arts culture as a relentless and viable palt of the Black martial arts lexicon . Essentially , wanted to connect Africa to the African by encouraging Black artists to study African as a rich source for martial arts growth and enhancement . Black martial arts culture has taken on many different dimensions within Black life . culture also intersects Black activist circles and community activism . the founder of the Martial Institute and a Ifa priest , combines West African martial systems and spirituality under the name , while seeking to promote African histories and culture . The goal of institute was to promote and preserve the traditional indigenous martial of , as conveyed through the system of to focus on adults as well as children , in our educational activities and to share the history and cultures of with our community , through demonstrations , lectures , workshops , classes , films , plays , and 58 Ibid . 59 Martial Institute , Movement , accessed January 22 , 2020 .

413 The Martial Arts Institute intended to build a strong community of martial artists who were knowledgeable , skilled practitioners of indigenous African martial arts or martial arts of the African . Inclusive within the martial arts system is the ability to sing , play the African instruments , execute the movements and techniques , and have knowledge of the roots , rituals , and traditions of and martial The system utilizes four basic applications in its system ) Polyrhythmic application , the Unbroken Circle , The Wind Has One Name , and ) Waste No Part of the Animal . The application is similar to the drum patterns used by African drummers . Polyrhythmic patterns are also indigenous to African American music , seeking to apply multiple strike patterns simultaneously in an offensive or defensive attack . In African American musical and religious communities , the call and response technique is often used to create interaction between the caller and responder . The unbroken circle seeks to use the opponent force against him while adapting to the actions and rhythms of the opponent to create a circle of offense and defense . The wind has no name prepares the martial artists to recognize finite angles and to further simplify combat by teaching that every block is a strike , and every strike is a block . Thus , when an martial artist learns an offensive technique , he has , in effect learned a defensive The application of waste no pan of the animal uses the philosophy 60 Ibid .

414 of economy of motion . In other words , a strike to the chin can be followed by a strike with an elbow to the chin . Inclusive to the martial arts system is the relationship between martial arts and African spirituality . teaches a double sword technique that also includes gripping and unarmed techniques against bladed weapons . In the Ifa spiritual system , is closely related to warfare . The craft of African blacksmiths who were often gave rituals to protect their weapons during battle . statues are often seen with holding the sword . The Martial Arts Institute is not a organization rather , it is a part of several organizations that provide the foundation for the Movement . This brings activism and martial arts under the umbrella of Black community activism . The or Movement is built on love , respect , loyalty , discipline , and principled unity . The mission is to raise political awareness and engage and inspire people to take an active role in building the 51 The philosophy teaches Black citizens how to survive beyond basic defense systems or martial arts . The Movement is a holistic , survival movement that includes the Feed the People program , Mama Army , Youth Corps , and the Urban Survival Preparedness Institute are the programs that provide reliance and preparedness training as the foundation for Black martial culture . 51 Movement , Movement , accessed January 26 , 2020 .

415 CONCLUSION African Warriors Marooned in the Swamp African scholarship has explored and researched many cultural traits of culture . However , Black martial arts systems in the United States and their connection to African cultures whether they were adopted or rediscovered , is a recent phenomenon . Captured Africans brought to the United States their fighting systems , forms , tactics , and African martial culture . Obi explained , African combat traditions in the Americas , where arts continued to play a key role in the society of enslaved Africans , albeit in radically new Due to the volatile nature of slavery , African sciences were taught in secret within maroon communities , performance circles , ritualistic initiations , and secret societies . The most skilled practitioners were known by rank within the enslaved 62 This quotation by is based on studying marooned societies on the Atlantic Coast , particularly the Maroons of the Dismal Swamp . Maroons were often runaways who learned combative skills in Africa or improvised skills adoptable in the New World . 53 Obi , 13 .

416 community . The movie Daughters of the Dust featured the legendary Landing , a community of captured Africans with roots in the fighting traditions . The film contains several scenes where two descendants are wrestling . African wrestling styles varied by regions , or , each with distinctive techniques and formats passed down from the ancestors to younger generations within the enslaved As African wrestling techniques transformed throughout the generations , new styles were created . The most popular form was the kicking a wrap style , where practitioners were known to be practicing well into the twentieth century . Most Black martial artists did not know about their African military utility or martial arts culture when most began to practice Asian martial arts . However , the Black Power Movement , African Independence Movement , and a return to traditional African culture enticed some Black martial artists also to return to the source of African fighting sciences . One of the tenets of traditional African studies is the Return to It was traditional African practitioners that most sought out to teach them African martial arts . Black martial artists did not abandon Asian martial arts but used African and Asian martial arts to create new and authentic Black fighting systems . Since the days of Black martial artists such as Jim Kelly , Grandmaster Moses Powell , 82 . 65 See Harris , Global Dimensions of the rican .

417 Grandmaster Duncan , and Billy Blanks along with movie stars such as Wesley Snipes and Michael Jai White , martial arts have been a part of Black popular culture . Black martial arts scholarship is forcing Black martial art culture to be recognized within the broader spectrum of American popular culture . Black martial arts culture is legendary and has lived in the margins of society before scholars and researchers recognized its origins , authenticity , and staying power . Professor Mo , also known as , attests that Black American cultural innovation laid the foundation for 52 hand blocks , a Black martial arts system , commonly seen in rap videos and utilized by some mixed martial artists . Professor Mo believes the system is derived from the genetic memory of Black people . Professor Mo understands historically that a lot of fighting systems were used in fights that took place on plantations . Plantation owners would take their slaves from place to place and let people gamble on the . So slaves did have a form of Black martial arts culture has embraced its African roots , while experiencing various levels of modernity . Many African cultural roots found their way back into Black martial arts culture . African dance and drum culture has become essential to elevating Black consciousness and in inciting African sensibilities . African dance and drummer cultures have also experienced changes in modernity , while staying grounded in traditional African drum and dance cultures . 66 Robert Young , 52 Blocks Art of Africa , Not Art of Incarceration ,

418 The challenge of studying Black martial arts systems and creating scholarship and historiography is similar to studying African dance history . writes that the challenge of writing an African dance history is often difficult because the wealth of African history is housed within traditional African culture and , consequently , the dances can be used as an primary source for writing African The same can be said about Black martial art systems in North America . Recent scholarship and Black martial arts research must use historiography in African studies , African history , cultural anthropology , performance studies , and field research . The practitioners of Black martial arts , its experts , and master teachers can not be limited to the interpretations of . In the media , most people see only Asian martial arts as being legitimate forms of martial arts systems . However , traditional African martial arts are being sought out by other martial artists outside of Africa . The block system , which has its origins in New York City , also has practitioners in Europe . Many scholars are slowly accepting the research of Black fighting systems with origins in Africa . Scholars such as Michael Gomez , John Thornton , and Obi have laid the foundation for historical inquiry . This essay attempts to show how Black martial arts systems in the modern era have African roots , utilize , and display authentic martial arts principles rooted in a Black consciousness with sensibilities . Several cultural streams in the media , music , performance arts , and the fighting arts have contributed to the growth of Black 67 ,

419 martial artists . Despite the popularity of Mike Tyson in Chinese martial arts movies , the martial arts roles of Wesley Snipes and Michael Jai White , Black martial artists have not reached the popularity of Chinese martial artists in the film industry . However , the subculture of Black martial artists is creating a resurrection of the African warrior spirit . Black martial arts culture provides the Black community with a mechanism to defend themselves , and more importantly , the higher principles associated with martial arts instill valuable principles embedded within the warrior code . A Japanese proverb says , For a Samurai to be brave he must have a bit of Black If this proverb is true , it means that throughout the ages the African warrior and the Black martial artists have always engaged and sustained a martial The African martial artist has received a in international popular culture . The book rican Samurai The True Story of , a Legendary Black Warrior in Feudal Japan and the Netflix anime series , has created a great interest in life . Little is known 68 , The Global African Travel Notes ( San Antonio , 2005 ) 32 Geoffrey and Thomas African Samurai The True Story of , a Legendary Black Warrior in Feudal Japan , 2019 The Legendary the African Samurai , and Series , Anime Series , 69 This quote has been a myth for years . However in the recent can Samurai The True Story of , a Legendary Black Warrior in Feudal Japan ( 2021 ) and the Netflix anime series dispels the myth and places the Black samurai experience in historical context . Race and identity has a long history , and the African interaction is one that has had some influence from the time of to today modern Japan . The article Japan Diverse Olympic Stars Reflect a Country That Changing ( Slowly )

420 about the life of before arriving in Japan in the , as one biography notes , Most Japanese people had never seen an African man before . Some believed he was a god . Others saw him as the The mythology of the Black martial artist is brought to life and provide additional perspectives to the African origins of martial arts and the Black experience . Discussion Questions . What is Patrick Manning understanding between the relationship of African American culture and African culture ?

Why should readers examine Black martial artists in North America within the foundation of traditional African culture ?

Explain the relationship between martial arts and ritualistic drumming . How did modernity affect African culture , particularly African martial arts and drumming ?

The Nation of Islam was the first Black organization to implement unarmed defense training in their organization , and Malcolm advocated for Black people to learn Judo and Karate . Why do you think Black communities embraced martial arts during the Black Power Movement ?

Name some examples from the essay of Black martial artists who inspired Black consciousness and social activism . Writing Prompt In a essay that asserts your main point , evaluates evidence , and sets forth an argument in a clear , concise , and compelling manner , explain how has this chapter changed your understanding or perception of African American participation in American martial arts culture . 70 Thomas and and Geoffrey , can Samurai The True Story of ?

Legendary Black Warrior Feudal Japan ( Square Press , 2021 ) Quote is on the back cover of the book .