Cultural & Ethnic Studies A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples

Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America Gloria Snively and The Indigenous peoples who live in Northwestern North America , specifically those who live in present day British Columbia and in southwest Alaska and Yukon Territory adjacent to British Columbia , eastward to the Rocky Mountains and southward to the Columbia River , inhabit a region with a remarkable wealth of natural resources . The northwest coast is home for a variety of land and sea mammals as well as an abundance of edible intertidal invertebrates ( clams , mussels , crabs , shrimp , snails , sea cucumbers , and sea urchins ) and seaweeds . Great flocks of waterfowl and teeming hordes of fish migrate from the ocean up rivers and streams to interior lakes . Deer , elk , moose , caribou , mountain goat , black bears , grizzly bears , as well as numerous smaller mammals found shelter and abundant food among the mountains or in coastal and interior forests . However , these riches of nature are not always abundant or entirely free for the taking . Some of them , on the contrary , are exceptionally difficult to access or capture . It was Indigenous Science and technology , plus the knowledge of its application , that provided the vital means for ensuring a reliable food supply year round , as well as a sustainable range of resources in the area . These techniques and wisdom practices did not suddenly spring into being . They developed slowly and painstakingly as more effective variations were invented or introduced and applied to achieve more effective results . In every community , extending back thousands of years , there have been men and women who were experts in their knowledge of plants , animals , and the environment . The final result produced some of the most elaborate and productive fishing , hunting , on the coast aquaculture societies that knew how to live well , and who knew how to selectively harvest , thus sustaining the resources they used for their own purposes and for future generations . Many different peoples developed immense knowledge systems , created rich and rewarding cultures filled with strong family and community bonds , artistic expression , ritual and ceremony , and enduring relationships with other plants and animals of their home territory . One of the roles of Elders and knowledge holders is to find ways of passing on what they learned in their own lifetimes to the next generation so that its members would be able to benefit materially and culturally from this knowledge and wisdom . We must infer that this cycle of learning , observing , predicting , using , inventing , adapting , experimenting and sharing ecological wisdom , technological breakthroughs and cultural knowledge has been occurring in Northwestern North America since time before recorded history ( Turner , In the school system , however , examples of Indigenous innovations in science textbooks have been largely limited to Indigenous technologies such as fish traps and other fishing technology , carving totem poles and dugout canoes , and weaving cedar bark baskets . In this chapter , we bring to the attention of educators the science knowledge and processes underlying such innovations . In addition , we provide a broader range of traditional wisdom practices and Indigenous Science innovations that can be included in school curricula . It is our hope that teachers , parents , and readers will strive for effective ways to inform and inspire all our children . 94 I Chapter into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America

Working with Trees and Plants As a result of working with versatile cedars and other kinds of trees for thousands of years , generations of Aboriginal perfected various technologies for felling and transporting trees , splitting and cutting planks , joining pieces of wood together , steaming and bending wood , weaving fibres , sanding and finishing products , patching and repairing products , as well as carving and painting products . Western red cedar was vital to the life of Indigenous peoples . Red cedar grows tall and straight , with straight grain , both strong and , bending under the weight of snow . The inner bark also has strength of flexibility , and in soils without large rocks , the roots run straight and even . But it is the lightweight reddish brown wood that runs straight without knots that gives the cedar its distinction . Figure A Full size northern style dugout canoe with high , rectangular shaped prow and stern . The outside is painted with Northwest coast designs , the front depicting a dogfish . Artists Bill Reid , Beau Dick , Simon Dick , and Gary ( 1984 ) Photo by Jessica ( 2016 ) Courtesy of Museum of Anthropology , University of British Columbia , Vancouver , Canada . Made of a single western red cedar log , the dugout canoe of the Northwest Coast was central to the way of life of these peoples . Nowhere else in the world was a dugout developed to such a degree of sophistication no other people had a dugout that could match the speed , capacity and the elegant the sleek canoes of the Northwest Coast Indian ( Stewart , 1984 , 48 ) The earliest European explorers to visit the coast , who knew good boats , marveled that the construction was so perfect , that not even an expert could detect the least flaw or imperfection ( Rev . Charles , as cited in Stewart , 1977 , 48 ) Significantly , the hull designs of big dugout canoes were later used for the fastest sailing clipper ships that raced between North America and Europe . At Fort Langley , many newcomer Europeans were in awe of the quality of canoes that plied the waterways of coast and river . Without the canoes as a means of travel , hunting and transport , few villages could have prospered . Canoes were variously designed for different purposes and environments large dugout canoes to withstand heavy waves and ocean storms in transport of people and goods ( long sturdy dugout canoes for whaling ( Figure ) slender , simply built canoes for going upriver to hunt , set fishing nets and trade and , long wide canoes for transporting goods long distances ( Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America 95

Figure Figure ' 75 Figure Figure A whaling canoe . A notch in the top of the prom was designed as a harpoon rest , and was said to take the shape of a wolf head . Illustration by Karen . Figure A Coast canoe for general travel and transport of goods . Illustration by Karen . Figure A River canoes enabled trade between the interior and the coast well into the century . Illustration by Karen Figure A Birch bark canoe . Illustration by Karen . Figure A canoe . Illustration by Karen . The of the Olympic Peninsula , Washington and the of southern Vancouver Island hunted whales and other mammals . Their canoes were virtually identical . The canoe was extremely seaworthy . Their flatter bottom allowed for easy beaching and loading , and their flared width gave them exceptional stability as they pitched in ocean swells . Floats of sealskin , blown up like huge balloons , attached to the harpoon line slowed the whale and kept the dead whale from sinking . The war canoe ( not illustrated ) with its flat bottom , could plane at high speed ( skim along the top of the water ) Chief Edwin Frank to John , personal communication , 1998 ) The rivers of central are shallow , but swift , and their navigation required considerable skill . Canoes of somewhat varying shapes played a key part in transporting goods throughout the interior and enabling trade between the interior and the coast . The crew used paddles and long poles to guide the canoes away from violent eddies and in the right direction downstream , and to push or pull canoes upstream ( Figure ) The peoples of the eastern interior harvested white birch bark to build birch bark canoes for travelling rivers and lakes ( Figure ) Cottonwood has some of the same characteristics as red cedar and was used to make dugout canoes in the interior . Small ( cottonwood ) canoes were left at crossing points along portage trails for travellers crossing in either direction ( a Bert McKay to John , personal communication , 1979 ) 96 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America

Ingeniously , the people of the interior ( the Nation ) made the canoe that they adapted to a wetland environment . The flat bottom and pointed nose allowed the canoe to easily go through the reeds and high grass of marshlands enabling the people to gather food ( One of the greatest achievements of early Northwest Coast peoples was the building of large houses using massive cedar beams . A visit to such a house staggered the imagination of Capt . John , who sailed the coast in 1788 , and his journey entry well expressed his sense of awe The trees that supported the roof were of a size which would render the mast of a man of war diminutive , on a comparison with them indeed our curiosity as well as our astonishment was on its utmost stretch , when we considered the strength that must be necessary to raise these enormous beams to their present elevation and how such strength could be found by a people wholly unacquainted with mechanical powers ( Stewart , 1984 , 61 ) A . Figure A native village , British Columbia . Photo by George Mercer Dawson ( 1878 ) Courtesy of Canadian Museum of History . All along the Pacific Northwest Coast , people faced the water . Generally built close to one another , the houses hugged the water edge wherever there was a beach , fresh water and a means to make a living . Some of the best examples of early large cedar houses were photographed at , by George Dawson during his travels in the early ( One of the best examples of the framework of a large house with fluted beams is in the village of on Village Island near ( Figure and Figure ) Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America 97

Figure A The framework of a large house with beams in the village of on Village Island , near ( Alert Bay ) Photographer Unknown . 1068 , courtesy of the Royal Museum ( 1912 ) Figure A The framework of a large house with beams in the village of on Village Island , near ( Alert Bay ) Photo by Curtis . 2321 , courtesy of the Royal Museum . These early explorers did not know that for centuries , Indigenous and house builders had mastered post and beam construction , as well as the technology for raising massive cedar beams some 20 or 30 metres long , weighing more than ten tons , that could span open plan buildings and support roofs that could hold many tons of snow . One method was by moving the beam along an angled skid using levers , fulcrum , ropes and manpower ( Figure ) 98 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America

The men the lever Luff the , nA a ( the beam up the and are mo . Ohm the beam ( 19 A Pole slaps the back short a , reaches the top of beam from sliding down . for further . the skid , onto the house post . Figure A Raising a massive house beam along a skid using levers , wedges , fulcrum , ropes , and manpower . Illustration by Karen ( Adapted from Hilary Stewart , Cedar , 1984 ) Harold Wright ( a Elder ) told the author ( personal communication , 1977 ) that the method used to raise a massive house beams was to build a structural ' a fashion similar to the way squared timbers are stacked in alternating pairs to level campers , trailers , and move houses today . A crib of short squared timbers was stacked under a beam balance point and then a man walked to one end of the beam to raise the other end . As the balanced beam was by the weight of a man moving end to end , blocks of varying thickness added to the square crib increased its height and thereby raised the beam incrementally . The process would be repeated with the beam raising a small vertical distance each time as they teeter back and forth and new support planks were added . The beam flat bottom contributed to stability . The energy supplied by one man moving back and forth was sufficient to jack up the beam ( Man one and . beam . I I I will tE EEr for . i added to crib I Figure A Crib to lift house beam . Illustration by Karen . Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America 99

Similarly , the raising of a totem pole can require a hundred or more men and the precise knowledge and skills required to build a strong scaffold and support crossbar , and by resting the pole on a crutch between stages of raising . In most communities , the pole is still raised in the traditional manner , followed by a great potlatch ( feast ) and speeches . Rattles were fashioned from a wide assortment of materials to accompany such occasions pectin shells , puffin beaks , deer hooves , mountain goat hooves , bear claws , hollowed wood and pebbles . A variety of whistles and some with two and three notes were used to create the sounds of supernatural and spirit creatures . Food played a major part in any important occasion . Enormous feast dishes , each carved from a large block of wood , and cedar baskets of various sizes and types held great quantities of prepared food for huge numbers of guests ( Stewart , 1984 ) While harvesting cedar and building large structures was almost the exclusive work of men , women worked almost exclusively with the inner bark and roots to weave a wide assortment of products , but it was only during the spring and summer months when the sap was running that pulling off the bark was possible . The women would look for a tall straight tree with few or no branches on one side . Stripping the bark from only one side allowed the tree to live , thus ensuring a sustainable harvest in the area ( Figure ) As with all natural resources , the people expressed gratitude . To show respect was to ensure a good supply in future years . After selecting a tree , the women would address the spirit of the tree in a prayer of respect , thanking it for being a good provider and asking it for some of its dress ( bark ) explaining why they needed it ( Stewart , 1984 ) puns bark wag From cedar em Figure A Stripping the bark from only one side of the red cedar tree ensured sustainable harvest in the area . Illustration by Karen . From the cedar bark and roots , women made baskets , bags , floor mats , clothing , hats , canoe , baby cradles , cooking and serving utensils , baskets , snowshoes , and ropes ( Figures , and ) For peoples who lived in the rain coast environment , where heavy rain and cold weather were frequent , clothing made from shredded cedar bark oiled with grease gave protection from wind , rain and cold . The bark multiple layers of fibre provided good insulation . They used finely shredded inner bark to make tinder , brooms , paintbrushes , string , fishing lines , napkins , baby diapers , and bandaging ( Stewart , 1984 Turner , 1998 ) 100 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America

. a I I . Figure A Berry picking basket , coiled and imbricated , woven with cedar root and cedar splints . The red decoration is the natural colour of wild cherry bark , the black is stained wild cherry bark , the white is wild rye grass picked just before it blooms ( only available for about weeks a year ) The shape of the basket is very difficult to achieve but is the best shape to keep the soft berries from crushing at the bottom . The baskets are waterproof which is necessary for holding the berry juices . Baskets are carried with the leather belt either around the upper shoulders and chest or on the forehead . The small straps are to hold leaves in place to cover the berries from the dust and sun . Basket woven by Seraphine Lester , a of Mount and is now in the collection of her niece Lorna Williams . Photo by Alicia . Figure A Baby cradle . New born babies sleep in these cradles for the first months , they are laced in at night , and in the day time when people are working they can be nearby , the cradle can be propped up in a standing position when the baby is awake and people are working nearby . This cradle was made in 1975 , by Williams of Mount for her granddaughter Megan Williams who owns the basket today . Photo by Alicia . Figure A Birch Bark basket made by Mary Thomas , in the collection of Lorna Williams . Photo by Alicia . Figure A snowshoes for a child by Alec Peters . Photo by Simon Bedford ( 1970 ) Reprinted with permission . Different cultural groups gathered available materials to make baskets and other products at different times of the year depending on the location the bark and roots of red cedar , as well as white birch bark , spruce roots , reed canary grass , cattail , bull kelp , slough sedge and stinging nettle ( Figure ) Both coastal and interior peoples with highly developed understanding of plant materials made many types of baskets for many small waterproof drinking cups to large storage baskets . Baskets were important for harvesting as they could be light and strong , shaped for convenient carrying of different foods and materials . Baskets were often decorated with designs and colours Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America 101

produced by developing dyes made from various plants . Cedar bark baskets tended to have less decoration than those made of other materials , with plaid or geometric designs made by overlaying bark strands dyed black or red . For black , dried year old cedar bark was buried in black swampy mud , leaving it for only a few days , otherwise the roots would rot . When the mud was washed off , the bark was stained a permanent black . The Bitter Cherry bark can be dyed black by burying it in mud for several months . Today the dying process can be sped up by adding a few tin cans and rusty nails ( Stewart , 1984 Turner , 1998 ) A beautiful red colour is obtained by simply using the natural Bitter Cherry bark . Over the millennia , the Aboriginal peoples of became highly skilled in the arts of working with plant materials . The coiled baskets with their intricate designs of both coastal and interior peoples are world famous . Beautiful coiled baskets and other products continue to be made by the Lil wat people of Mount . Tanning Hides Ingeniously , Indigenous peoples around the world used brain tanning , an ecologically sound form of aldehyde tanning , to soften and preserve hides . North American Indigenous peoples boiled the brains of bears , deer , moose , caribou , or buffalo to make a broth for tanning hides . Acidic chemicals in the broth soften the hides and alters the nature of the protein fibres in such a way that they resist decay . Hides ( usually deer ) continue to be tanned to make and washable jackets , dresses , and moccasins , only today , the broth is often made by boiling egg yolks . Moose hide is used in making snowshoes . In fact , snowshoes , sleds , and are Indigenous technologies , as well as parkas and leather mittens . Medicinal Uses of Plants There are numerous documented medicinal uses of plants by the Indigenous peoples of . For example tea made from yarrow leaves was used for colds devil club for diabetes , arthritis and stomach problems and ocean spray fruits for diarrhea , to name only a few ( Turner Peacock , 2005 ) Significantly , Western scientists have acknowledged numerous Indigenous remedies for specific ailments using ( a common seaweed ) on burns and plantain on insect bites ( Nancy Turner , personal communication , March 2013 ) The bark of the Pacific Yew was used by the Indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States for treating many ailments , including some forms of cancer . It was not until the that the agent was isolated by scientists and used in the treatment of cancer ( Turner , 1990 ) Controlled Burning Indigenous people of Canada ( and throughout the Americas ) developed highly articulated and effective approaches to grassland management . Most Indigenous people understood plant succession and many employed fire to encourage the growth of valuable plants , foster optimum habitat conditions , and control insect pests and disease ( Turner , 1991 Turner Peacock , 2005 Turner , In British Columbia , controlled burning was practiced on southern Vancouver Island to optimize the production of edible blue , which grows best in an open Garry oak meadow 102 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America

habitat ( Figures , The burning released nutrients into the soil and discouraged less useful plants that compete for sun and moisture , maintaining mosaics of grasslands rich in , deer forage , wild strawberries , blackcap and trailing blackberries diversifying habitat and increasing options for food and other resources . When controlled understory burning was practiced , the bulbs grew to the size of small table potatoes . Newcomer Europeans who misunderstood the practice and had very different land use agendas outlawed the Indigenous landscape burning practice . A century later bulbs , where they are found , are often significantly reduced in size and they are no longer widely gathered . Thus , according to Turner ( 1991 ) the concept of genetic and ecotypic variability was obviously recognized by Indigenous peoples and was a factor in food gathering ( 18 ) Figure A Garry oak meadow with blue plant . Photo by Abe Lloyd ( 2014 ) Reprinted with permission . Figure A Blue roots and bulbs . Photo by Abe Lloyd ( 2013 ) Reprinted with permission . Productivity of a wide range of berries was increased by burning grasslands and hillsides , the pruning of berry bushes , selective harvesting , and the cultivation and transplanting of roots from one location to another . By researching the nature of interaction on the northwest coast , Turner and Peacock ( 2005 ) conclude that the Indigenous peoples were active managers who promoted and valued plant resources and thus have much more in common with farmers than previously supposed ( 148 ) Ancient Clam Gardens Although never lost to Indigenous knowledge keepers , clam gardens have only recently been discovered by Indigenous northwest coast scholars ( Figures , Coastal habitat surveys of the coastline , and specifically of the Archipelago , reveal hundreds of stonewall features in the lower intertidal area that can not be explained as fish traps . Through collaboration with I ( Elders , Clan Chief ( Adam Dick ) and ( Daisy ) researchers have concluded that Northwest Coast Indigenous peoples cultivated large Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America 103

quantities of preferred butter clams and cockles in walled sea gardens that may be unique in the world . The structures were created when Indigenous people , seeking to maximize clam production for an expanding population , rolled boulders to the extreme edge of a bearing location to create a ridge parallel to the shore . Doing this extended the depth of beach out from the shore , and by integrating a series of small beds , it sometimes greatly lengthened the width of the substrate . Williams , 2006 , 10 ) I Figure A Tracey lsland clam garden showing raised wall . Photo by Kim ( 2004 ) Reprinted with permission . Figure A Clam gardens belong to individual families . Clams were roasted in their shells at the edge of fires , steamed in bentwood boxes , or braided into chains , smoked , and stored . Illustration by Karen . After building the walls , sediment , mud , and nutrients carried in by high tides would accumulate to create the ideal habitat for clam gardens . Families managed the intertidal plots and passed them down through generations . The tidal farmers would use digging sticks to turn over chunks of seafloor and aerate the sand ( Figures , They selectively harvested the mature clams and left the smaller ones . Figure A The water boils when hot cooking rocks are placed in the cedar bentwood box to steam the clams . Cedar tongs are used for placing cooking rocks . Deep Harbour . Photo by Kim ( 2011 ) Reprinted with permission . Figure A Cooking butter clams in a cedar bentwood box in Deep Harbour . The water boils when hot rocks are dropped into the box . Box made by . Photo by Kim ( 2011 ) Reprinted with permission . Figure A Clan Chief ( Adam Dick ) digging clams with the ( yew wood digging stick ) that he made , Deep Harbour , North Coast . Photo by Kim ( 2011 ) Reprinted with permission . 104 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America

Over culturally modified clam gardens have been identified in almost every river estuary and delta from northern California to , Alaska . Carbon dating suggests clam terraces to be up to years old . The number of gardens , their long usage , and the labour involved in rock wall construction indicate that individual and clustered clam gardens were one of the foundation blocks of Indigenous economy for specific coastal people . Evidence of Indigenous knowledge and usage led astonished researchers to the conclusion that Indigenous systems of sustainable clam production on the coast preceded modern shellfish installations by perhaps thousands of years ( Williams , 2006 , 12 Caldwell et , 2012 ) Traditional Fishing Methods Aboriginal peoples of devised a great many different styles of fishhooks , lures , traps , spears , harpoons and nets for capturing different species of fish in different environmental conditions . Contemporary photos and Elder accounts show that there are still Indigenous peoples who catch and preserve fish by methods little changed in thousands of years . While the traditions still serve the people , the major changes are the materials nylon net replaces one of nettle fibre , iron replaces bone for fishhooks , and Styrofoam floats replace inflated seal bladders . released bug ' up . The spears or the cod . A bun ( 06 by the Lure Figure A Curious codfish following twirling lure to waiting fishermen at the surface . Illustration by Karen . Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America 105

The traditional Indigenous peoples of the coast used lures in ways that reflected close observation and intimate knowledge of marine life . A sliver of white in the shape of a fish gave a realistic imitation of a swimming fish as it was towed through the water . A piece of abalone glittering in the sunlight caught the attention of the fish . Perhaps the most cleverly devised lures were those specifically designed to attract bottom fish such as cod and halibut ( Pushed down into deep water on a long pole , it was designed to rise slowly and enticingly to the surface , where the fish that followed it up , with predictable curiosity , met the fisherman waiting with a spear or dip net in his hand ( Stewart , 56 ) The a carved their cod lures from wa ( devil club ) because it is a lightweight wood , easy to carve and buoyant ( a chief Bert McKay , personal communication to John , October , 1978 ) One of the most ingenious methods of sustainable fishing ever devised was invented by Indigenous peoples . The highly selective catches fish that try to pass through by snagging the gills , thus trapping the fish that can neither advance through the net nor retreat . uses a system of nets with floats and weights . The nets are anchored to the seafloor or steam bed and allowed to float at or near the surface . The lattice allows small fish to swim through the net and large fish to bounce off the net , while fish of the desired size are caught by their gills . The traditional is an effective method of catching large numbers of fish while allowing small fish to swim through , thus ensuring a fishery into the future ( Figure ) out , from to catch Salmon . A Similar is in use , Ish bounce off ne ( Medium 55 . 59 caught are stone , suspended hoops , St Figure A The highly selective traditional is an method of sustainable . Illustration by Karen . Traps and , probably the most productive of any type of fishing device , allowed large quantities of fish to be caught at a time when the salmon runs were at their peak . through which water either built right across a shallow river or angled to guide the migrating fish into traps . 106 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America

For the ( the people of southern Vancouver Island , Gulf Islands , San Juan Islands , and across to the River ) the reef net fishery formed the core of society . The to the material that the net was constructed inner bark of the willow tree , most likely the Pacific willow or the Hooker willow ( Figure ) The method of fishing was an incredibly sophisticated technique that required knowledge of the salmon , their habits and travel routes , tides , currents , and of plants , among other things . The reef net consisted of cedar log buoys , cedar ropes to form the sides and the floor of the net , and specifically made rock weights . Dune grass was threaded through the twining of the ropes that formed the floor and the sides , allowing the net to blend with its surroundings . The net was suspended between two canoes , and would hang out with the flow of the tide . After a school of salmon entered the net , the rear anchor lines would be released and the tide would bring the canoes together . The salmon could be rolled into the canoes and brought ashore . Figure A Reef net of the ( Saltwater people . Dune grass threaded through the net would fool the salmon that they were actually safely swimming near the bottom . Illustration by Fran , Salt Water People , 1983 ) Reprinted with permission from School District 63 , Victoria , British Columbia . The method of fishing , according to Nick ( 2016 ) reflects a deep respect for the salmon , the earth , and each other It was believed that the runs of salmon were lineages , and if some were allowed to return to their home rivers , then those lineages would always continue . The people believed that all living things were once people , and they were respected as such . The salmon were their relatives . All things on earth were to be respected since it is the earth that we all share . 19 ) The people successfully governed their traditional fisheries for thousands of years prior to contact . This was because the people followed strict fishing practices based on respect . For example , at the end of the net , a ring of willow was woven into it , which allowed some salmon to escape . According to ( 2016 ) this fishing method , combined with a profound respect for the salmon , allowed a sustainable fishery over the millennia Out of respect , when the first large sockeye was caught , a first salmon ceremony was conducted . This was the way to greet and welcome the king of all salmon . All fishing would cease and the celebration would likely last up to 10 days Taking time to celebrate allowed for a major portion of the salmon stocks to return to their rivers to spawn , and to sustain those lineages or stocks . 20 ) Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America I 107

asserts that this kind of respect for salmon and all of creation is an integral part of what it means to be a person . Fish Cultivation and Enhancement Canada most recent volcanic eruption , dated 260 years ago ( about 1750 ) created a long lava flow that blocked the great River , creating the newly formed Lava Lake and River ( new river in the a language ) Traditional a stories include graphic descriptions of an eruption that emitted deadly gasses and a flow of fiery lava that buried a village of some residents . In 1978 , the Eagle Tribe Chief and historian , related that when the lava flow blocked the River , it prevented the ascent of spawning salmon . a survivors placed spawning fish in bentwood cedar boxes filled with water and packed them past the blockage , thereby ensuring the survival of these stocks ( to John , personal communication , 1977 ) Log From es are anchored in A when ham . with spawn are untied and , fresh , or hung up to . Herring Hemlock , I or no ' ELL war branches . or bunker ?

grands ) are weighted with to hang . log frames are held in , anchor Figure A For hundreds and possibly thousands of years the fisherman have anchored floating log frames in quiet bays , allowing the herring to deposit their eggs all over tree branches or help hung down from the log frames . Illustration by Karen . Practical cultivation of herring along the and Alaska coastline probably began with attempts to improve and concentrate spawning habitat . Interviews and oral history from Elders in southwest Alaska document transplantation as a cultivation technique . Knowing when the herring would congregate in certain bays and coves to deposit their eggs , the fishermen would fall trees or place branches in quiet water or hang branches or kelp from floating log frames for the fish to deposit their eggs ( Figure ) This herring roe on kelp fishery continues in some locations to this day . Elders speak of allowing the herring to spawn their eggs on tree branches and waiting until eyes were almost forming on the eggs ( Thornton , 2010 , 12 ) Then they slowly towed the heavily laden tree ( or lifted the branches and piled them into canoes for transport ) to designated locations . Elders have continued the practice by cultivating herring in places where 108 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America

populations have declined . Harvey ( tribal leader ) explains , As long as you get them back in the water within three days , they swim away ( 12 ) Clearly , for hundreds and possibly thousands of years the a , as well as other tribes , developed forms of fish enhancement that preceded modern fish enhancement practices . Estuarine Gardens According to ethnographic accounts , the demand for root vegetables that grow in the lower zones of estuaries was quite high along much of the northwest coast , specifically silverweed ( Argentina ) clover ( Trifolium ) and northern rice root lily ( Figures , The roots were a primary source of dietary carbohydrates and other nutrients for most Northwest Coast peoples ( 2005 Turner 81 Peacock , 2005 , Turner , Figures , These Indigenous people understood the differing physical conditions caused by the tide , and that organisms live in certain population zones on the shore . This understanding led to an increase in the production of edible root gardens by taking advantage of optimal tidal estuarine habitats and in some cases building rock or wood terraces in the low intertidal zones . Figure Figure A Northern Rice Root Lily . Photo by Abe Lloyd ( 2013 ) Figure A Clover . Photo by Abe Lloyd ( 2008 ) Figure A Silverweed Photo by Abe Lloyd ( 2008 ) Figure Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America 109

7411 I . 32 7413 Figure A Northern Rice roots and seed pod . Photo by Abe Lloyd ( 2008 ) Figure A Pacific Silverweed roots . Photo by Abe Lloyd ( 2008 ) Figure A Clover roots . Photo by Nancy Turner ( 2005 ) The rock terraces located in the high marsh served to elevate lower portions of the salt marsh on a backfill surface and made the gardens bigger . importantly , and the construction of durable rock or wood retaining walls allowed the seaward expansion of the very narrow band of the high salt marsh in which the preferred vegetables grow . By raising the position of the planting surface relative to the tidal column , the soils appear to have altered local hydrology and nutrient regimes dramatically , expanding this otherwise narrow portion of the intertidal zone and increasing significantly the production of preferred estuarine plants ( Idealized Salt Marsh . a . Prior to Garden Rockwork Construction . CA Transitional A Ah . Hi , Low Marsh , I ( I . With Intact Garden Rockwork Transitional I , Low ?

i ' Marsh . I ' i , Ir Ag , I ' app . Figure A Idealized salt marsh . Illustration from , 2005 ) Tending the garden , making the soil Northwest coast estuarine gardens as engineered environments . In Turner ( Keeping it living Traditions of plant use and cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America ( Seattle , WA University of Washington Press . 110 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America

The soils that accumulated in the garden plots were rich in fresh sediments and organic detritus from riverine , estuarine , and marine sources carried to the high tide line by peak tides and floods . It made the garden plots among the most nutrient rich soils , higher in nitrogen , phosphorous , potassium , and such trace elements as calcium than unmodified marsh soils . The area was cleared or weeded of competing grasses , and other plants to ensure good growth of the food species using specialized digging tools made of hard yew wood . 2005 ) describes how Indigenous food producers learned to engineer the tidal flats in order to harness its productivity well before their first contact with Europeans The method of root cultivation employed reflected a detailed appreciation of the interplay of cause and effect within environmental systems The peoples of this coast repeatedly modified estuarine soils , plants and hydrology in anticipation of a predictable outcome the qualitatively and quantitatively enhanced output of root foods ( 300 ) Plant foods contributed substantially to the diet of Northwest Coast peoples , providing them with essential vitamins and minerals , carbohydrates , and the dietary fibre required for proper digestion ( Turner Peacock , 2005 ) Large quantities of plant resources were acquired or traded , and were highly prized gifts at ceremonies boxes of Pacific , cranberries and bog cranberries , preserved , salal berry cakes , dried seaweed , bulbs , tubers , silverweed and clover , as well as the green shoots of thimbleberry and salmon berry , to name a few ( Turner , 1995 Turner Peacock , 2005 Turner , By intensifying conveniently located patches of food plants , the people of the coast reduced the risk of fluctuations of other dietary resources . As populations of salmon could fluctuate widely , it is clear that this affected Indigenous peoples and their survival strategies . Thus , the emergence of effective management strategies and the abundance of localized marine and riverine resources enabled the concentration of people together in large villages ( Turner , 2005 ) False Assumptions of 21 Colonial Past In an attempt to understand the origin of errors , false assumptions and biases about Indigenous knowledge , the authors sketch our colonial past in the Americas . History books and various colonial papers have depicted Indigenous peoples as hunters and gatherers , affluent , and without Europeans proclaimed the Americas as Term , meaning unoccupied land . The cultural prejudices and the missionary , political and academic agendas of the majority culture since the time of the served to undermine actual Indigenous knowledge and claims on the land and its natural resources . The vast majority of documentary information in the Americas was recorded by men of European background and , traders , settlers , colonial officials , and missionaries . It is perhaps not surprising that innovations such as Indigenous estuarine root vegetable gardens , clam gardens , and salmon enhancement practices went unnoticed or unrecognized . The claim of century colonial surveyors that Northwest Coast peoples have no aboriginal plant which they cultivate , or Governor General James ( 1859 ) characterization of Indigenous people as mere wandering denizen of the forest , reveals more about the observers than the observed . Rather , these assertions served to devalue and dismiss Indigenous peoples claims to entire regions of land and resources . Together , colonial claims regarding traditional resource use provided a facade that served the extractive ambitions of colonial and frontier economies and the expansionist territorial agendas of colonial governments and the nation state ( Turner , 2005 , 336 ) In this regard , it is instructive to note that grew up in the service of European empire building , which accounts at least in part , for its portrayal of IK as outside the realm of real science . It also helps explain the emphasis in on domination and control of lands , resources and environment . Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America 111

For Indigenous peoples in Northwestern North America , their complex knowledge systems , built up over millennia , have been threatened since European contact and globalization . Disease , epidemics , colonization , government laws , loss of lands and territory , environmental deterioration , mission and residential schools , and loss of language have all contributed to the loss of traditional knowledge systems . The result has been alarming declines in local and science knowledge . The refusal of many school jurisdictions to acknowledge IS as science , and the lack of Indigenous science curriculum projects continues to erode our understanding of the cultural knowledge and practices that sustained Indigenous peoples for thousands of years . As a result , Indigenous people in many cases have lost touch with the traditional wisdom and knowledge that sustained them for thousands of years in their homelands . Yet , Indigenous Elders and knowledge holders , as well as scholars in anthropology , ecology , biology , geology , geography , education and environmental studies agree that retaining and building on Indigenous and local knowledge systems helps support people capacity for social and economic resilience , food security and well being ( 2012 Turner , 2014 a , 2014 ) A fundamental focus of future curriculum development is to try and better understand how Indigenous peoples systems of knowledge developed , disseminated , adjusted , and evolved across great landscapes . What were their legacies ?

How did old and new practices combine and shift ?

What can we learn from the ancient clam gardens ?

Did they observe , infer , predict , theorize , evaluate , and adapt ?

Of importance in these times of global declining biodiversity and environmental stress , what lessons can be learned from these knowledge systems ?

In writing this chapter , we sincerely hope that we have done justice to the Elders and knowledge holders who have passed on their knowledge and experiences to younger generations . We hope that all students will realize that Indigenous peoples are not simply vestiges of the past , but rather , are alive today and have much to share . We hope that in the future teachers , curriculum developers , book publishers and educational jurisdictions will develop a range of culturally appropriate Indigenous Science lessons and curricula . The best way to ensure greater accuracy is to involve knowledgeable Elders and knowledge holders in some stage of the production of those resources . Only then will generations to come , both Indigenous and students , benefit from the teachings of the Elders and understand a little more clearly the richness and significance of their perspectives , knowledge , and wisdom . This chapter provides only a brief glimpse into the vast storehouse of knowledge that developed across the great landscapes and of Northwestern North America . For a more discussion of Indigenous knowledge and wisdom examples in Northwestern North America , see selected resource books , Appendix DISCUSSION POINTS In a small group , brainstorm the following . How Northwestern North American Indigenous peoples discovered medicinal remedies that work ( using on burns and plantain on insect bites ) Proponents of argue that real science is testable , evidence based , has explanatory power , and is determined by consensus . When Indigenous peoples of the northwest coast increased the production of edible root gardens by building rock terraces in the low intertidal zones , was their innovation the result of trial and error only , or can it be included in the realm of real science ?

112 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America To a considerable extent , culturally appropriate Indigenous Science curricula must be . Discuss . Choose a topic such as fishing , raising house beams , tanning hides or clam gardens . Refer to Appendix A , and , and develop a science lesson or unit of study at a desired grade level . 2012 ) Sacred ecology ( edition ) New York , NY . Retrieved from 19780203123843 Caldwell , Washington , Welch , Harper , 2012 ) A birds eye view of Northern Coast intertidal resource management features , Southern British Columbia , Canada . The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology , Retrieved from ' 11 ! 2004 ) To fish as formerly The Douglas Treaties and the reef net fisheries . Victoria , University of Victoria . Retrieved from research ! 2005 ) Tending the garden , making the soil Northwest coast estuarine gardens as engineered environments . In Turner ( Keeping it living Traditions of plant use and cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America ( Seattle , WA University of Washington Press . Turner , 2005 ) Keeping it living Traditions of plant use and cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America . Seattle , WA University of Washington Press . Douglas , 1859 , March 14 ) Copy of despatch sic from Governor Douglas to the Right Hon . Sir . Bart ( No . 114 ) In British Columbia , Papers Connected with the Indian Land Question ( Victoria , Government Printing Office . Retrieved from land question Elliott , 1983 ) Saltwater people A resource book for the Native Studies program . School District No . 63 . Snively , 2001 ) Discovering Indigenous science Implications for science education . Science Education , 85 ( Retrieved from ( 200101 ) Stewart , 1977 ) Indian Fishing Early methods on the Northwest coast . Vancouver , Douglas Stewart , 1984 ) Cedar Tree of life to the Northwest coast Indians . Vancouver , Douglas . Thornton , Butler , Funk , Moss , Elder , Craig , Sheer . 2010 ) Herring Synthesis Documenting and modeling herring spawning areas within systems over Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America I 113

time in the southeastern Gulf of Alaska . Final Report , North Pacific Research Board Project , OR Portland State University . Retrieved from Turner , 1991 ) Burning mountain sides for better crops Aboriginal landscape burning in British Columbia . Archaeology in Montana , 32 ( Turner , 1995 ) Food plants of coastal First Peoples . Royal British Columbia Museum Handbook . Vancouver , Press . Turner , 1998 ) Plant technology of First Peoples in British Columbia . Royal British Columbia Museum Handbook . Vancouver , Press . Turner , 2005 ) The earth blanket Traditional teachings for sustainable living . Vancouver , Douglas . Turner , Ancient pathways , ancestral knowledge Ethnobotany and ecological wisdom of Indigenous peoples of northwestern North America , Volume The history and practice of Indigenous plant knowledge . Montreal , University Press . Turner , Ancient pathways , ancestral knowledge Ethnobotany and ecological wisdom of Indigenous peoples of northwestern North America , Volume The place and meaning of plants in Indigenous cultures and . Montreal , University Press . Turner , 1990 ) Contemporary use of bark for medicine by two Native Elders of Southern Vancouver Island , Canada . Journal of , 29 ( Retrieved from . oi . 741 Turner , Peacock , 2005 ) Solving the perennial paradox Ethnobotanical evidence for plant resource management on the Northwest Coast . In Turner ( Keeping it living Traditions of plant use and cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America ( Seattle , WA University of Washington Press . Williams , 2006 ) Clam gardens Aboriginal on Canada West Coast . Vancouver , New Star Books . 114 Chapter A Window into the Indigenous Science of Some Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America