Contemporary Families An Equity Lens Textbook Chapter 2 Studying Families

. STUDYING FAMILIES STUDYING FAMILIES PREVIEW QUESTIONS I 35 STUDYING FAMILIES QUESTIONS As you read this chapter , consider the following questions What can you expect to learn from studying families ?

How will studying families impact your family and your work life in the future ?

What are the main methods for researching families ?

What are the nuances of objectivity coupled with humanity ?

How will cultural humility help you understand other people ?

What are the major theoretical perspectives ?

Which ones make the most sense to you ?

What is a social problem ?

What social problems have you experienced or observed ?

How will having a sociological imagination and understanding equity equip you to learn about families in the United States ?

36 HOW AND WHY WE STUDY AND WHY WE STUDY FAMILIES Elizabeth Pearce Families and kinship are of great interest to most , if not all , people . We all have a family , whether or not that family meets the socially constructed of family that are common in the United States , or our own desired of family . Sociologist Paul separates the of family into the objective and the subjective The objective are often provided by governmental structures . Employers , schools and agencies also rely on these . Subjective are both richer in context and more complicated to explain . We can for selves whom we consider to be family members . When we are discussing equity and families we must attend to the subjective . Because it is only by measuring the experiences of all families in the United States ( whether or not they are sanctioned or favored by programs and societal preferences ) that we can really perceive how privilege , power , and discrimination affect families We study families in order to better understand ourselves . When we can see our own family within the greater context of the experiences of other families and societal and trends , we understand ourselves better . Being able to relate your own experiences to these greater forces and interactions with the world is called the sociological imagination . Sociologist Charles ( Wright Mills created this term in 1959 in order to help explain the ways that the of sociology contributes to both everyday life and Throughout this course and this text you will be given opportunities to develop your sociological imagination . Ask yourself how your own family experiences relate to the broad trends and events in this country . Where do you ?

Or yourself as an outlier , differing from other members of your family , social group , or society ?

We also study families in order to better understand other families and society . In this way we recognize both the uniqueness of each family and the ways in which groups share identities and experiences . Let say that you feel familiar with the experience of a rural student family , because you are a student and you live in a rural munity . You may be able to speak very eloquently to the challenges students are facing today , and what living in a rural setting means about your access to education , medical care , healthy food , and transportation . At the same time , you can not speak for all rural student families , because every family has a unique history and set of . 2019 ) What is a family ?

National Council on Family Relations . Retrieved December 31 , 2019 , from . Wright Mills , 1959 ) The sociological imagination . Oxford University Press . Retrieved December 31 , 2019 , from 20 HOW AND WHY WE STUDY 37 circumstances that also affects their lives . So part of your job in studying families is to listen and understand how those other rural student families experience life , what their strengths are , and what they need . Simultaneously we study families in this class to understand the circumstances and experiences of families that we have never met . It even more important to listen to and understand families whom we might see as quite different from us . You might easily see the differences between a family that has emigrated to the United States in the past ten years as compared to a family made up of people who have lived in the United States for several generations . Could you imagine living in a country that uses a different language than you grew up speaking ?

Or visa versa ?

While we might quickly identify those kinds of differences , we need to study more deeply to understand at least two other themes how our families share similar love , goals , and needs and how our families may be treated differently by the institutions and the society of the United States . The greater our ability to comprehend each other experiences , the more likelihood we will be able to better understand how families are similar in what they need and what they do , and what the differences are amongst what families experience in the United States . We study families to make a difference in our everyday lives to better understand our own families , our neighbors , and our friends . Studying families also helps us in our work lives . All of us will work with a diverse group of individuals , all of whom have families . Whether you are a teacher who the next generation , a business owner who coordinates for your employees , a marketing director who designs advertising campaigns , a computer programmer who creates code , or a social worker who helps people solve life problems , you will both work alongside a group of diverse individuals who have families , and you will have clients , or customers who are members of this diverse country , the United States . Much of what we know about families and kinship comes from research conducted in the United States and in other countries . In order to be a critical consumer of research , it is helpful to understand what gies are used , and what their strengths and limitations are . In addition , it is useful to be aware that there are myths and beliefs that we hold because society has created and reinforced them . When learning new tion we must be prepared to question our own beliefs in order to incorporate greater understanding . Finally , there are both concepts and theories relevant to the study of families these will greatly enhance your deeper comprehension of the material that we explore in this text . Sound research is an essential tool for understanding families . Families are complex because there are ple ways that families form and function . Every family is comprised of unique individuals . Studies about seek to learn about how families interact internally as well as with the greater social world . What are the effects of actions and environments on families ?

How do families treat each other within their structures ?

For example , in a global pandemic has impacted individuals and families in multiple ways , changing most people health , social , work , school , and home environments . But how do we understand and quantify those changes ?

What impacts , dynamics , consequences and solutions have families experienced ?

Table 38 I HOW AND WHY WE STUDY describes the major ways in which sociologists gather information , the advantages and disadvantages of each and a narrative of each method follows . Method Advantages Disadvantages Many people can be included . Large surveys are expensive and time to a random sample of the consuming . Although much population , a survey results can be information is gathered , this generalized to the population . information is relatively . Because experiments do not involve If random assignment is used , random samples of the population Experiments experiments provide fairly convincing and most often involve college data on cause and effect . students , their results can not readily be generalized to the population . Because observation studies do not studies ma involve random sam les ofthe Observation research rich , detailed information about the , their results can not Edi ' peop are serve . rea genera to population . The data set that is being analyzed Because existing data have already may not contain data on all the been gathered , the researcher does not Variables in which a sociologist is have to spend the time and money to interested or may contain data on gather data . variables that are not measured in ways the sociologist prefers . Existing Data Table . Advantages and disadvantages of sociological data collection methods . Surveys The survey is the most common method by which sociologists gather their data . The poll is perhaps the most example of a survey and , like all surveys , gathers its data with the help of a questionnaire that is given to a group of respondents . The poll is an example of a survey conducted by a private , but sociologists do their own surveys , as does the government and many organizations in addition to . Many surveys are administered to respondents who are randomly chosen and thus constitute a dom sample . In a random sample , everyone in the population ( whether it be the whole US population or just the population of a state or city , all the college students in a state or city or all the students at just one college , etc . has the same chance of being included in the survey . The beauty of a random sample is that it allows us to generalize the results of the sample to the population from which the sample comes . This means that we can be fairly sure of the behavior and attitudes of the whole US population by knowing the behavior and attitudes of just four hundred people randomly chosen from that population . Some surveys are surveys , in which interviewers meet with respondents to ask them questions . This type of survey can yield much information , because interviewers typically will spend at least an hour

HOW AND WHY WE STUDY I 39 asking their questions , and a high response rate ( the percentage of all people in the sample who agree to be interviewed ) which is important to be able to generalize the survey results to the entire population . On the downside , this type of survey can be very expensive and time consuming to conduct . Because of these drawbacks , sociologists and other researchers have turned to telephone surveys . Most polls are conducted over the telephone . Computers do dialing , which results in a random sample of all telephone numbers being selected . Although the response rate and the number of questions asked are both lower than in surveys ( people can just hang up the phone at the outset or let their ing machine take the call ) the ease and low expense of telephone surveys are making them increasingly lar . Surveys done over the Internet are also becoming more popular , as they can reach many people at very low expense . A major problem with web surveys is that their results can not necessarily be generalized to the entire population because not everyone has access to the Internet . Surveys are used in the study of families to gather information about the behavior and attitudes of people regarding their behaviors . For example , many surveys ask people about their use of alcohol , tobacco , and other drugs or about their experiences of being unemployed or in poor health . Many of the chapters in this book will present evidence gathered by surveys carried out by sociologists and other social scientists , various tal agencies , and private research and public interest . Experiments Experiments are the primary form of research in the natural and physical sciences , but in the social sciences they are for the most part found only in psychology . Some sociologists still use experiments , however , and they remain a powerful tool of social research . The major advantage of experiments , whether they are done in the natural and physical sciences or in the social sciences , is that the researcher can be fairly sure of a relationship because of the way the experiment is set up . Although many different experimental designs exist , the typical experiment consists of an experimental group and a control group , with subjects randomly assigned to either group . The researcher does something to the experimental group that is not done to the control group . If the two groups differ later in some variable , then it is safe to say that the condition to which the experimental group was subjected was responsible for the difference that resulted . Most experiments take place in the laboratory , which for psychologists may be a room with a ror , but some experiments occur in the , or in a natural setting ( experiments ) In , in the early , sociologists were involved in a experiment sponsored by the federal government . The researchers wanted to see whether arresting men for domestic violence made it less likely that they would commit such violence again . To test this hypothesis , the researchers had police do one of the following after arriving at the scene of a domestic dispute They either arrested the suspect , separated him from his wife or partner for several hours , or warned him to stop but did not arrest or separate him . The researchers then determined the percentage of men in each group who committed repeated domestic during the next six months and found that those who were arrested had the lowest rate of recidivism ,

40 AND WHY WE STUDY or repeat . This led many jurisdictions across the United States to adopt a policy of tory arrest For domestic violence suspects . However , of the experiment in other cities found that arrest sometimes reduced recidivism For domestic violence but also sometimes increased it , ing on which city was being studied and on certain characteristics of the suspects , including whether they were employed at the time of their As the study suggests , perhaps the most important problem with experiments is that their results are not generalizable beyond the subjects studied . The subjects in most psychology experiments , for example , are college students , who obviously are not typical of average Americans They are younger , more educated , and more likely to be middle class . Despite this problem , experiments in psychology and other social sciences have given us very valuable insights into the sources of attitudes and behavior . Scholars are increasingly using experiments to study the effectiveness of various policies and programs aimed at addressing social problems . We will discuss social thoroughly discuss social problems later in the Perspective and Key Concept section . Observational Studies Observational research , also called research , is a staple of sociology . Sociologists have long gone into the to observe people and social settings , and the result has been many rich descriptions and analyses in juvenile gangs , bars , urban street corners , and even whole communities . Observational studies consist of both participant observation and nonparticipant observation . Their names describe how they differ . In participant observation , the researcher is part of the group that she or he is ing , spends time with the group , and might even live with people in the group . Several classical studies of this type exist , many of them involving people in urban In nonparticipant observation , the researcher observes a group of people but does not otherwise interact with them . If you went to your local shopping mall to observe , say , whether people walking with children looked happier than people without dren , you would be engaging in nonparticipant observation . Similar to experiments , observational studies can not automatically be generalized to other settings or of the population . But in many ways they provide a richer account of people lives than surveys do , and they remain an important method of research on social problems . Sherman , Berk , A . 1984 ) The deterrent effects for domestic assault . American Sociological Review , 49 ( Sherman , 1992 ) Policing domestic violence Experiments and dilemmas . Free Press . 1967 ) Tally corner . Little , Brown . 1993 ) Tell them who I am The lives women . Free Press . 1943 ) Street corner society The social structure ofan Italian slum . University of Chicago Press

HOW AND WHY WE STUDY I 41 Analysis and Synthesis of Existing Data Sometimes sociologists do not gather their own data but instead analyze existing data that someone else has gathered . The US Census Bureau , for example , gathers data on all kinds of areas relevant to the lives of cans , and many sociologists analyze census data on such social problems as poverty , unemployment , and illness . Sociologists and psychologists interested in crime and the criminal justice system may analyze data from court records , while medical researchers often analyze data from patient records at hospitals . Analysis of existing data such as these is called secondary data analysis . Its advantage to sociologists is that someone else has already spent the time and money to gather the data . If one study does not contain all the data that the researcher needs , they may synthesize data from multiple studies , both quantitative and qualitative , to reach broader . Qualitative and Quantitative Research Research can be qualitative , quantitative , or sometimes combine both kinds of analysis . Qualitative research deals with words and with meanings , whereas quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics . Both of these kinds of analysis are important for understanding families . For example , quantitative research can tell us how many , or what percentage of families studied , have participated in a social process such as marriage , divorce , or remarriage . Qualitative research can tell us how members of that family experienced the process what emotional reactions did they have , what did it mean to them , and what other actions or behaviors they attribute to being involved in the social process ( marriage , divorce , or remarriage . Qualitative research is descriptive quantitative research is measurable . The Method and Objectivity This section began by stressing the need for sound research in the study of social problems . But what are the elements of sound research ?

At a minimum , such research should follow the rules of the method . As you probably learned in high school or college science classes , these hypotheses , gathering and testing data , drawing conclusions , and modifying the guarantee that research yields the most accurate , descriptive , and reliable conclusions possible . An overriding principle of the method is that research should be conducted as objectively as . Researchers are often passionate about their work , but they must take care not to let the they expect and even hope to uncover affect how they do their research . This in turn means that they must not duct their research in a manner that helps achieve the results they expect or desire to . Such bias can happen unconsciously , and the method helps reduce the potential for this bias as much as possible .

42 I HOW AND WHY WE STUDY Licenses and Open Content , Shared Previously Research is adapted from Understanding Social Problems in Social Problems and Change by Anonymous . License . Adaptation edited for clarity , timeliness , and relevance .

DiSPOSiTiONS I 43 LEARNING DISPOSITIONS Elizabeth Pearce One of the most important aspects of learning about families and equity is you , the learner . In order for your brain to change , to adapt , to assimilate new information you will need to work at it . Reading , writing , and cussing the material is not enough . It a start , but the disposition that you bring to this experience will make a large impact on what you ' Are you willing to set aside existing assumptions and ideas when you read something that doesn make sense to you at first ?

Are you willing to question beliefs that may be ingrained in multiple generations of your own family or kinship group ?

Are you willing to be uncomfortable during this learning process ?

Will you work to listen to others that have different social identities than your own ?

Dispositions that are open to trying out new ideas and ways of thinking will help you learn and your brain grow new understandings and neural pathways . We will talk about three learning dispositions here cognitive and emotional , objectivity , and cultural humility . Cognitive and Emotional To understand the diversity of family experience in the United States , students will need to practice putting yourself in another person Seeing that people have beliefs , values , emotions , and responses that can overlap with and differ from our own will expose the richness and depth of family life . It is important to note that we can not always predict how we ( or someone else ! will respond given a particular circumstance . Instead , it is our work as students to listen , understand , and learn more about what families experience and how they function in the United States . In particular it is critical to listen to those we perceive as belonging to different social groups than ourselves . By adopting an attitude of listening , rather than of judging , we will increase our own knowledge base . Objectivity and Humanity Every human being has a unique set of characteristics , experiences , and beliefs . This is part of what makes us

44 human our abilities to think , reflect , and form conclusions based on our particular set of circumstances . This is true of social scientists as well , the human beings who study other humans , our social groups , and . We rely on empirical research , data which is collected and analyzed by social scientists , to learn about individuals and families . These scientists emerge from a variety of disciplines including Anthropology , tion , Human Development and Family Sciences , Psychology and Sociology . They share the research principle that scientists must do their best to set aside their own beliefs and experiences in order to influence the study or analysis that they are conducting . Creating objectivity is considered crucial to the method which includes formulating a hypothesis that is then tested via the collection and analysis of information . At the same time , we must acknowledge that this method and theory was created and validated almost exclusively by people of one gender and one race ( male and European , or White ) and there is room for of this thinking . The feminist perspective ( described in Theoretical and Key Concepts and Table ) introduces some complexity to the idea of objectivity by emphasizing that in order to truly understand our social ture , researchers must acknowledge that every human being ( themselves included ) brings their own viewpoint based on their unique set of social characteristics to their work . The intersection of our gender , ethnicity , race , age , sexuality , ability and other identities along with our own life experiences makes each of us unique . must understand their own perspective , or bias , in order to do their best to both recognize the impact of their own viewpoint and to attempt to set it aside while collecting and analyzing information .

LEARNING DISPOSITIONS I 45 Cultural Humility Figure . Understanding different cultures is crucial in our interconnected world . As our world becomes increasingly diverse and interconnected , understanding different cultures becomes crucial . Without a basic understanding of the beliefs and experiences of individuals , professionals can contribute to prejudice and discrimination or negatively impact professional relationships and effectiveness of services . To understand cultural experiences , it is important to consider the context of social identity , history , and individual and community experiences with prejudice and discrimination . It is also important to acknowledge that our understanding of cultural differences evolves through an ongoing learning process . 1998 ) Cultural humility versus cultural competence A critical distinction in physician training outcomes in multicultural education . Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved , 125 .

46 LEARNING Figure . Cultural competence involves ongoing learning . Cultural competence is generally as possessing the skills and knowledge of a culture in order to work with individual members of the culture . This includes an appreciation of cultural and the ability to effectively work with individuals . The assumption that any individual can gain enough knowledge or competence to understand the experiences of members of any culture , however , is problematic . Gaining expertise in cultural competence as traditionally seems unattainable , as it involves the need for knowledge and mastery . Instead , true cultural competence requires engaging in an ongoing process of learning about the experiences of other Further reading on cultural competence by Stanley Sue can be found in this article In Search of Cultural Competence in and Counseling , Cultural humility is the ability to remain open to learning about other cultures while acknowledging one own lack of competence and recognizing power dynamics that impact the relationship . Within cultural ity it is important to engage in continuous , recognize the impact of power dynamics on and communities , embrace not knowing , and commit to lifelong learning . This approach to diversity encourages a curious spirit and the ability to openly engage with others in the process of learning about a culture . As a result , it is important to address power imbalances and develop meaningful relationships with community members in order to create positive change . A guide to cultural humility is offered by ally Connected . 1998 ) Cultural humility versus cultural competence A critical distinction in physician training outcomes in multicultural education . Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved ,

47 Dimensions of Diversity Figure . It is important to address power imbalances and develop meaningful relationships with community members in order to create positive change . Although it is impossible to discuss all of the dimensions of human diversity in this section , we present some common dimensions that will be discussed in this text . We also acknowledge the importance of , which was described in the Introductory chapter and the process of cultural humility in understanding diversity . Culture is something that unites people . Russia

48 I LEARNING Culture Culture is an important dimension of diversity for community psychologists to examine . In general , culture has been challenging to , with modern viewing culture as a dynamic concept that changes both individuals and societies together over time . Further , culture in today society refers to more than just cultural and ethnic groups but also includes racial groups , religious groups , sexual minority groups , nomic groups , and corporations . While numerous for culture are available , there are key components , such as shared meanings and shared experiences by individuals in a group that are passed down over time with each generation . That is , cultures have shared beliefs , values , practices , and other elements that are expressed through family socialization , formal schooling , shared language , social roles , and norms for feeling , thinking , and Culture can be examined at multiple ecological levels to understand its impact . This means that culture can the norms and practices of individuals , families , organizations , local communities , and the broader society . For example , cultural can have an impact on how members function and interact with one another . Further , culture should be understood within a broader context of power relationships , and how power is used and . Cohen , A . 2009 ) Many forms . American Psychologist , 64 ( 2011 ) From Water boiling in a Peruvian town to Letting them die Culture , community intervention , and the metabolic balance between patience and zeal . Psychology , 47 ,

LEARNING 49 Race Figure . Most genetic variation exists within racial groups rather than between groups . While physical differences often are used to race , in general , there is no consensus for this term . Typically , race has been using observable physical or biological criteria , such as skin color , hair color or texture , facial features , etc . However , these biological assumptions of race have been determined to be inaccurate and harmful by biologists , anthropologists , psychologists , and other scientists . Research has proven no biological foundations to race and that human racial groups are more alike than different in fact , most genetic variation exists within racial groups rather than between groups . Therefore , racial differences in areas such as academics or intelligence are not based on biological differences but are instead related to economic , historical , and social Instead , race has been socially constructed and has different social and psychological meanings in many . Lopez , 1993 ) The study , ethnicity , and race in American psychology . American , 48 (

50 In the US , people of color experience more racial prejudice and discrimination than White people . The meanings and of race have also changed over time and are often driven by policies and laws ( one drop rule or laws ) Case Study 15 Race Selected ?

Rachel , also known as , was born to White parents with no known African ancestry . As a young adult , she became involved in civil rights , became a college instructor of Studies , and began as a Black woman . She even became president of the Spokane , Washington chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( She resigned from her position with the and was missed from her role as an instructor after information surfaced casting doubt upon her racial heritage . She later acknowledged that she was born to White parents but continued to insist that she strongly as a Black woman . Read more . wa ' Ethnicity Ethnicity refers to one social identity based on the culture of origin , ancestry , or with a cultural Ethnicity is Figure 25 Definitions of ram have not the same as nationality , which is a person status of We Often ' ing to a nation by birth or citizenship ( eg , an individual by Domes and laws can be of Japanese ethnicity but British nationality because they were born in the United Kingdom ) Ethnicity is by aspects of subjective culture such as customs , language , and social . Lopez , 1993 ) The study of culture , ethnicity , and race in American psychology . American , 48 ( 1989 ) Understanding race , ethnicity and power The key to efficacy in clinical practice . Basic Books . Ahluwalia , 1999 ) Cultural sensitivity in public health and . Ethnicity Disease ,

I 51 While ethnic groups are combined into broad for research or demographic purposes in the US , there are many ethnicities among the ones you may be familiar with . or Hispanic may refer to persons of Mexican , Puerto Rican , Cuban , Spanish , Dominican , or many other . Asian Americans have roots from over 20 countries in Asia and India , with the six largest Asian ethnic in the US being the nese , Asian Indians , Filipinos , Vietnamese , Koreans , and Japanese ( read more ) Fig . Asian Americans have roots from over 20 countries in Asia and India . Gender Gender refers to the socially constructed perceptions of what it means to be male or female in our society and how those genders may be reflected and interpreted by society , Gender is different from sex , which is a logical involving chromosomes and external reproductive organs . As a socially constructed concept , gender has the perceived differences between females and males leading to limitations in attitudes , roles , and how social institutions are organized . For example , how do gender norms types of jobs viewed as appropriate or not appropriate for women or men ?

How are household or parenting divided between men and women ?

Gender is not just a demographic category but also gender norms , the distribution of power and . resources , access to opportunities , and other important processes ?

For those who live outside of these traditional expectations for gender , the experience can be ing , In general , the binary categories for sex , gender , der identity , and so forth have received the most attention Figure . Gender identity is different from sex . from both society and the research community , with only more attention to other gender identities ( neutral , transgender , and ) in recent . Bond , A . 1999 ) Gender , race , and class in organizational . American Journal of Community Psychology , 27 ( 10 . Palmer , 2015 ) Reflecting resiliency Openness about sexual orientation or der identity and its relationship to and educational outcomes for students . of munity Psychology , 55 ,

52 i But the attention to other gender identities is increasing , both academically and publicly . One example is the case of Nicole challenging her school restroom policy , which resulted in a Victory when the Maine Supreme Judicial Court ruled that she had been excluded from the restroom because of her gender identity . While community psychologists are making efforts to conduct more research on the various gender identities on the gender spectrum , more research needs to continue in this area . Age Age describes the developmental changes and that come with being a child , adolescent , or adult . Power dynamics , relationships , physical and psychological health concerns , community participation , life tion , and so forth can all Vary for these different age Although the has started to include aging issues in research , Cheng and Heller searched For on older adults in major Community Psychology Fig . Age describes the developmental changes and transitions that come with being a journals and found that this segment of the population Child adolescent or has been Although the skills , values , and training of community psychologists would likely make a difference in the lives of older adults , the attitudes within our profession and society are current barriers . 11 . Cheng , Heller , 2009 ) Global aging Challenges for community psychology . Psychology , 44 , 12 . Cheng , Heller , 2009 ) Global aging Challenges for community psychology . Psychology , 44 ,

LEARNING I 53 Social Class Like the other components of diversity , social class is socially constructed and can affect our choices and , This dimension can include a person income or material wealth , educational status , occupational status , It can include assumptions about where a person belongs in society and indicate differences in power , economic opportunities and resources , and social capital . Social class and culture can also shape a person worldview or understanding of the world how they feel , act , and in and impacting the types of Fig . Social class can include a income or Status schools they attend , access to health care , or jobs they . work at throughout life . The differences in norms , values , and practices between lower and upper social classes can also have impacts on and health Social class and its intersection with other components of one identity are important for community psychologists to understand , Unnatural Causes Is Inequality Making Us Sick ?

is a documentary that focuses on the connection between social class , racism , and health . Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to a person emotional , romantic , erotic , and spiritual attractions toward another in relation to their own sex or gender . The focuses on feelings rather than behaviors since individuals who identify with a minority sexual orientation ence stigma and oppression in our Sexual orientation exists on a continuum or multiple and crosses all dimensions of diversity ( race , ethnicity , social class , ability , religion , Sexual Sexual . ender or ender ex . 18 different from gender identity or gender 13 . Cohen , A . 2009 ) Many forms of culture . American Psychologist , 64 ( 14 . Flanders , Robinson , A . 2016 ) Negative identity experiences of bisexual and other people A qualitative report . Journal of Gay Lesbian Mental Health , 20 (

15 . 16 . 54 I sion . Over time , gay , lesbian , asexual , and bisexual identities have extended to other sexual such as pansexual , and , and increasingly more research is being conducted on these populations within the of Community As a historically marginalized and oppressed group with representation in the literature , sexual minority groups face a variety of problems and issues that further research . The empowering and participatory approaches and methods used in Community Psychology can be beneficial for research with sexual minority groups . Disabilities refer to visible or hidden and temporary or permanent conditions that provide barriers or , and impact individuals of every age and social group . Traditional views of disability follow a medical model , primarily explaining diagnoses and treatment models from a pathological In this approach , individuals diagnosed with a disability are often discussed as objects of study instead of plex individuals impacted by their environment . A social model of ability , which is the perspective of these authors , views diagnoses from a social and environmental perspective and considers multiple ecological levels . The experiences of individuals are strongly valued , and participatory research is a valuable way to explore experiences while empowering members of a community with varying levels of ity . Learn more by watching the Employment Choice for People with Severe Physical Disabilities . Culture must be considered when viewing ability from Fig . 211 . Culture may impact the diagnosis ofa disability . Palmer , 2015 ) Reflecting resiliency Openness about sexual orientation or der identity and its relationship to and educational outcomes for students . American Journal of munity Psychology , 55 , 2010 ) Epistemological journeys in participatory action research Alliances between munity psychology and disability studies . Disability Society , 20 ( 096875 90500059077

55 a social perspective , and may impact whether or not certain behaviors are considered For inclusion in a diagnosis . For example , cultural differences in the assessment of typical development have impacted the diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders in different countries . Further , diagnoses or symptoms can be , and culture mav how are communicated . The experience of culture can impact lived experience for individuals diagnosed with a disability . It is important to consider how impacts the experience of disability . For example , students of color and other underserved groups have a higher rate of diagnosis of learning disabilities , emotional and behavioral disabilities , and intellectual disabilities , which may be due to economic , historical , and social . Diagnosis must be considered as disabled youth are at a disadvantage in a number of indicators of performance , leading to more substantial disparities later in life . Licenses and Open Content , Shared Previously Cultural Humility , Dimensions of Diversity , Race , Gender , Age , Sexual Orientation , and , are adapted from Respect for by Thai and Lien in Introduction to an A ent of Chan , Rebus Community . License BY . Adaptation Edited for clarity and relevance . Figure . Photo by . License Pi License . Figure . Photo by . License License . Figure 23 . Harmony Day ( 5475651018 ) by images . License BY 20 . Figure . Photo by . License License . Figure . Photo by . License License . Figure . Elderly Women by Tee . License . Figure . Photo by . License Pi License . 17 . 2010 ) Epistemological journeys in participatory action research Alliances between munity psychology and disability studies . Disability Society , 20 ( 09637590500059077 18 . Trent , Ortiz , A . 2010 ) and explaining disproportionality , A critique views . Exceptional Children , 76 (

56 Figure . Photo by . License License . Figure . Homeless by . License BY 20 . Figure . APRIL 2015 54663 by ed . License . Figure . 20180611 Special Olympics 01687 by Olympics 2018 . License .

AND KEY CONCEPTS I 57 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND KEY CONCEPTS Elizabeth Pearce We will examine families from a variety of theoretical perspectives . A theoretical perspective , or more , a theory is not just an idea that someone has . Rather it is a structural framework , explanation , or tool that has been tested and evaluated over time . Theories are developed and utilized via scholarship , research , discussion , and debate . Theories help us to understand the world in general , and in this instance the ways in which families form , function , interact with , and experience the world . In addition , we will several key concepts ing equity , social problems , and the sociological imagination that are important to your understanding of equity and families in this course . Because the study of families overlaps multiple disciplines , we will utilize sociological , human development , psychological , and anthropological theories and concepts . Play this video to learn about of the theories related to the study of families Social Exchange , Symbolic Interaction , Feminist , Postmodern , and Life Course . It is recommended that you play it at speed and you can disregard the references to chapter numbers ) One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text You can View them online here hi ' families ?

Here is a summary table of these theories and four others that are commonly used in this and that will discussed in this text .

58 AND KEY CONCEPTS Table . Foundational theories related to the study of families . Theory Major Relation to Key Vocabulary Important Principles Family Life and Concepts Opposition , power and Emphasizes the Within interests of family and familial society are the male tie needed for and society to to develop and change Ecological Systems Individuals are part ofa group of concentric systems that impact their development and growth . Children are by the people and environments in which they spend the most time , as Well as the greater social events , trends and values . Micro , Meso , Macro , and . developed this theory in the second century he the creation of in the United States . Exchange ( aka Social Exchange ) Individuals have different strengths , resources and weaknesses and enter into relationships via the evaluation of and costs . Emphasizes the motivation for familial relationships that each person is giving and gaining within the family . The family is the classic example . Feminism ( aka Feminist ) Society is structured in a way that privileges men over women the theory works to understand and to transform inequalities . This theory emphasizes the way that gender roles are constructed within the family including the socialization of children . Gender differences are mostly socially constructed . This theory draws on the , Exchange , and Symbolic Interaction perspectives . Different from the Feminist Activist movement ! Read and listen carefully , so that you can distinguish it .

AND KEY CONCEPTS 59 Social Formulated institutions The family can be seen as originally in function an institution ( century France , it Functionalism together in order was the dominant to meet family ) that contributes sociological theory in individual and to a harmonious society century group needs . United States There is evidence . that Individuals meet . This theory cultures in North one set . family life in its America developed a Hierarchy of first in order to . arrangement of what hierarchy of needs Needs be motivated and . needs are most earlier than the more able to achieve . important . model other needs . created by Abraham . Family life is impacted by Emerging Early . lar national and Adulthood the of . social . Do not confuse this . international events life when people shift into . and historical . with the Lifespan wars , natural disasters , adulthood as they end . events shape the . theory Which has a . pandemics , economic their education , start a . I Life Course of different emphasis . birth cohorts and the individuals in them . depressions . In particular , children and adolescents in a given cohort will be impacted by these events over time . career and begin families . This period of life has become more varied and complex because of societal change . Read and listen carefully , so that you can distinguish it . Postmodern ( aka Modernity ) Choice and individuality are emphasized in the postmodern era . Humans are able to act in the way they choose with society and within institutions . Individuals have a much greater choice than they did in the past about how they form their families , the roles they play and who is in their family . History , family , and tradition have decreasing roles in family life . the way in which people take in new information , reflect upon it , and adjust and act With new knowledge This theory is a Very broad one and applies to many aspects ofwork , societal , and family life . Social Theorist Anthony has Written about this theory .

60 AND KEY CONCEPTS This theory focuses on the changing nature and the ways we interact with one Changing roles and symbols affect the ways family members interact with each other and with society . Societal Interpretation of shared Has a basis in Symbolic another based on expectations and social understandings I ) Interaction those symbols . constructions of how humans respond and as . Ca Humans see Fathering and mothering interact . In 000 themselves roles have changed over ( Herbert ) through the eyes time and this interacts and this affects the roles they play . with the Way fathers and mothers actually behave . A social problem is any condition or behavior that has negative consequences for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior that needs to be addressed systemically . It can not be solved by an individual institutional or societal responses are needed . This has both an objective component and a subjective component . The objective component is this for any condition or behavior to be considered a social problem , it must have negative consequences for large numbers of people . How do we know if a social problem has negative consequences ?

Reasonable people can and do disagree on whether such consequences exist and , if so , on their extent and seriousness , but ordinarily a body of data work by academic researchers , agencies , and other strongly points to extensive and serious consequences . The sons for these consequences are sometimes debated . For example in the case of climate change although the overwhelming majority of climate scientists say that climate change ( changes in the earth climate due to the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere ) is real and serious , the percentage of Americans who agree with scientists is lower . In a 2011 poll 64 percent said they think that global warming is happening ! While the majority of Americans believe in 2020 that climate change is a social , there is still a discrepancy between the community and the public view . Social identity and location viewpoints , Smith , 2011 ) Climate change in the American mind Americans global warming beliefs and attitudes in May 2011 . Yale Project on Climate Change Communication . 2020 , June 23 ) of Americans think government should do more on climate . Pew Research Center ence Society .

AND KEY CONCEPTS 61 according to polls that have found that people in the West and as well as younger are more likely to believe that climate change is at least partially caused by human behavior and needs to be addressed . This type of dispute points to the subjective component there must be a perception that the condition or behavior needs to be addressed for it to be considered a social problem and that viewpoint can change over time and location . This component lies at the heart of the social constructionist view of social problems In this view , many types of negative conditions and behaviors exist . Many of these are considered sufficiently to acquire the status of a social problem some do not receive this consideration and thus do not become a social problem and some become considered a social problem only if citizens , or other parties call attention to the condition or behavior . The history of attention given to rape and sexual assault in the United States before and after the an example of this latter situation . These acts of sexual violence against women have probably occurred from the beginning of humanity and certainly were very common in the United States before the . Although men were sometimes arrested and prosecuted for rape and sexual assault , sexual violence was wise ignored by legal and received little attention in college textbooks and the news media , and many people thought that rape and sexual assault were just something that Thus although sexual violence existed , it was not considered a social problem . When the contemporary women movement began in the late , it soon focused on rape and sexual assault as serious crimes and as manifestations of women inequality . Thanks to this focus , rape and sexual assault eventually entered the public consciousness , views of these crimes began to change , and legal began to give them more attention . In short , sexual against women became a social problem . Inc , 2019 , April 22 ) Climate change concerns higher in the northeast , west . Inc , 2018 , May 11 ) Global warming age gap Younger americans most worried . 2010 ) The study problems Seven perspectives ( Oxford University Press . Allison , 1993 ) Rape The misunderstood crime . Sage Publications .

62 PERSPECTIVES AND KEY CONCEPTS Fig . Before the , rape and sexual assault certainly existed and were very common , but they were generally ignored and not considered a social problem . When the contemporary women movement arose during the , it focused on sexual violence against women and turned this behavior into a social problem . The changing view of rape reflects the social constructionist nature of social problems . It also reflects the dynamic in which men have held more power to shape societal views . This raises an interesting question when is a social problem a social problem ?

According to some sociologists who adopt this view , negative conditions and behaviors are not a social problem unless they are recognized as such by , large numbers of lay citizens , or other segments of our society these sociologists would thus say that rape and sexual assault before the were not a social problem because our society as a whole paid them little attention . Other say that negative conditions and behaviors should be considered a social problem even if they receive little or no attention these sociologists would thus say that rape and sexual assault before the were a social problem . This type of debate is probably akin to the question If a tree falls in a forest and no one is there to hear it , is a sound made ?

As such , it is not easy to answer , but it does reinforce one of the key beliefs of THEORETICAL AND KEY CONCEPTS 63 the social constructionist view Perception matters at least as much as reality , and sometimes more so . In line with this belief , social constructionism emphasizes that citizens , interest groups , and other ties often compete to popular perceptions of many types of conditions and behaviors . They try to news media coverage and popular views of the nature and extent of any negative consequences that may be occurring , the reasons underlying the condition or behavior in question , and possible solutions to the problem . Social constructionism emphasis on perception has a provocative implication Just as a condition or may not be considered a social problem even if there is strong basis for this perception , so may a condition or behavior be considered a social problem even if there is little or no basis for this perception . The issue of women in college provides a historical example of this latter possibility . In the late , leading and medical researchers in the United States wrote journal articles , textbooks , and newspaper columns in which they warned women not to go to college . The reason ?

They feared that the stress of college would disrupt women menstrual cycles , and they also feared that women would not do well in exams during that time of the We now know better , of course , but the sexist beliefs of these writers turned the idea of women going to college into a social problem and helped to reinforce restrictions by colleges and universities on the admission of women . In a related dynamic , various parties can distort certain aspects of a social problem that does exist politicians can give speeches , the news media can use scary headlines and heavy coverage to capture readers or viewers interest , businesses can use advertising and news coverage . News media coverage of violent crime many examples of this The news media violent crime , which is far less mon than property crime like burglary and larceny , by featuring so many stories about it , and this coverage contributes to public fear of crime . Media stories about violent crime also tend to be more common when the accused offender is Black and the victim is White and when the offender is a juvenile . This type of coverage is thought to heighten the public prejudice toward African Americans and to contribute to negative views about teenagers . English , 2005 ) For her own good Two centuries of the experts advice to women ( Anchor Books . Robinson , 2011 ) Media coverage and criminal justice . Carolina Academic Press . Surette , 2011 ) Media , crime , and criminal justice Images , realities , and policies (

64 THEORETICAL AND KEY CONCEPTS Fig . A social problem emerges when a social change group successfully calls attention to a condition or behavior that it considers serious . Protests like the one depicted here have raised the environmental consciousness of Americans and helped put pressure on businesses to be environmentally responsible . The Sociological Imagination Many individuals experience one or more social problems personally . For example , many people are poor and unemployed , many are in poor health , and many have family problems , drink too much alcohol , or commit crime . When we hear about these individuals , it is easy to think that their problems are theirs alone , and that they and other individuals with the same problems are entirely to blame for their difficulties . Sociology takes a different approach , as it stresses that individual problems are often rooted in problems stemming from aspects of society itself . This key insight informed Wright Mills ( The classic distinction between personal troubles and public issues . Public issues is another term for social problems . Personal troubles refer to a problem affecting individuals that the affected individual , as well as other members of society , typically blame on the individual own personal and moral failings . include such different problems as eating disorders , divorce , and unemployment . Public issues , whose source lies in the social structure and culture of a society , refer to social problems affecting many individuals . Problems in society thus help account for problems that individuals experience . Mills felt that many problems ordinarily considered private troubles are best understood as public issues , and he coined the term sociological imagination to refer to the ability to appreciate the structural basis for individual problems . To illustrate Mills viewpoint , let use our sociological imaginations to understand some contemporary social problems . We will start with unemployment , which Mills himself discussed , If only a few people were unemployed , Mills wrote , we could reasonably explain their unemployment by saying they were lazy , lacked

AND KEY CONCEPTS 65 good work habits , and so forth . If so , their unemployment would be their own personal trouble . But when lions of people are out of work , unemployment is best understood as a public issue because , as Mills put the very structure of opportunities has collapsed . Both the correct statement of the problem and the range of possible solutions require us to consider the economic and political institutions of the society , and not merely the personal situation and character of a scatter of individuals ( The high US unemployment rate stemming from the severe economic downturn that began in 2008 a telling example of the point Mills was making . Millions of people lost their jobs through no fault of their own . While some individuals are undoubtedly unemployed because they are lazy or lack good work habits , a more structural explanation focusing on lack of opportunity is needed to explain why so many people were out of work . If so , unemployment is best understood as a public issue rather than a personal trouble . Another social problem is eating disorders . We usually consider a person eating disorder to be a personal trouble that stems from a lack of control , low , or another personal problem . This explanation may be OK as far as it goes , but it does not help us understand why so many people have the personal problems that lead to eating disorders . Perhaps more important , this belief also neglects the larger social and cultural forces that help explain such disorders . For example , most Americans with eating disorders are women , not men . This gender difference forces us to ask what it is about being a woman in American society that makes eating orders so much more common . To begin to answer this question , we need to look to the standard of beauty for women that emphasizes a slender If this cultural standard did not exist , far fewer American women would suffer from eating disorders than do now . Because it does exist , even if every girl and woman with an ing disorder were cured , others would take their places unless we could somehow change this standard . Viewed in this way , eating disorders are best understood as a public issue , not just as a personal trouble . Picking up on Mills insights , Psychologist William Ryan pointed out that Americans typically think that social problems such as poverty and unemployment stem from personal failings of the people experiencing these problems , not from structural problems in the larger Ryan work was widely considered to be a major structuralist response to an influential report published in 1965 , The Report , which posited that the prevalence of black single parent families was ghetto culture . The report the role of criminatory laws and Using Mills terms , Americans tend to think of social problems as personal troubles rather than public issues . aka social problems . As Ryan put it , they tend to believe in blaming the victim rather than blaming the system . 10 . Wright Mills , 1959 ) The sociological imagination . Oxford University Press . 11 . Boyd , Reynolds , Martin , 2011 ) Adolescent girls status , identities , and drive for thinness . Social Science Research , 40 ( 12 . Ryan , 1976 ) Blaming the victim ( Rev . Vintage Books 13 . Labor , of , Research , ofL . and . 1965 ) The negro family The case for national action . Government Printing Office .

66 I AND KEY CONCEPTS To help us understand a ideology , let consider why poor children in urban areas often learn very little in their schools . According to Ryan , a approach would say the children parents do not care about their learning , fail to teach them good study habits , and do not encourage them to take school seriously . This type of explanation , he wrote , may apply to some parents , but it ignores a much more important reason the sad shape of America urban schools , which , he said , are overcrowded , decrepit structures housing old textbooks and equipment . To improve the schooling of children in urban areas , he wrote , we must improve the schools themselves and not just try to improve the parents . As this example suggests , a approach points to solutions to social problems such as poverty and illiteracy that are very different from those suggested by a more structural approach that blames the system . If we blame the victim , we would spend our limited dollars to address the personal failings of als who suffer from poverty , illiteracy , poor health , eating disorders , and other difficulties . If instead we blame the system , we would focus our attention on the various social conditions ( decrepit schools , cultural standards of female beauty , and the like ) that account for these difficulties . A sociological understanding suggests that the latter approach is ultimately needed to help us deal successfully with the social problems facing us today . An Equity Lens This text is written to complement the Difference , Power , and Discrimination outcomes of Oregon State and Community College in Albany and , Oregon . This statement appears on the Oregon State University webpage The Difference , Power , and Discrimination Program works with faculty across all and disciplines at gon State University to create inclusive curricula that address intersections , race , class , sexual identity , age , ability , and other institutionalized systems and privilege in the United States . Therefore , an equity lens is applied throughout the text as we aim to understand what families need , how and Whether those needs are met , and the role that social institutions play in family outcomes . To understand families from this perspective , we focus on how families experience personal troubles and social problems as well as the disproportionate ways that families experience them . In addition we talk about social justice , which has many but commonly includes equal access or opportunity , equal treatment , and equal rights . In this text we will provide historical and context related to social justice , but focus on the current status of families in the United States . Here are two websites if you would like to know more about how social justice is and how to contribute to greater social justice in the United States ' Center for Economic and Social ' The San Diego Foundation What is Social ?

You will also see thinking related to Critical Theory and Critical Race Theory ( Both of these theories examine institutions and power structures . In this short video , Megan Paulson both theories in the THEORETICAL AND KEY CONCEPTS 67 minute . She then goes on to talk about the positive effect on students of all races and ethnicities when they have usable terms and language to talk about what they experience in terms in their daily lives . One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can View them online here ' It is the intent of the authors of this text that students use what they learn in this class to understand their own experiences , and the experiences of others , better . Discussion in the and online environments is encouraged . This text examines what families need , and how institutions and society can support those needs , or get in the way of meeting needs . This will lead to better understanding and analysis of how existing social processes and institutions contribute to family inequity . Licenses and Open Content , Shared Previously What is a Social Problem and The Sociological Imagination are adapted from What is a Social Problem and Sociological Perspectives on Social Problems by Anonymous . License . Adaptation edited for clarity . Figure . Placards at the Take Rape Seriously by Women . License BY Figure 214 . Financing Climate Change by Visible Hand . License BY 20 . All Rights Reserved Content Theories and Concepts ( Liz Pearce . License Terms Standard YouTube license . A Minute And Over Critical Race Theory ( License Terms Standard YouTube license .