Contemporary Families An Equity Lens Textbook Chapter 1 Social Constructions

. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONS SOCIAL SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONS QUESTIONS As you read this chapter , consider the following questions What is a social construction ?

Can you think of another example that is not in the text ?

How does the social construction of difference contrast with a social construction ?

If you could add a third image in Figure , what television family is the most representative today ?

How is equity different from equality and fairness ?

What are the big demographic family trends in the United States ?

hat is a social identity ?

Can you describe your own social identity via your roles , characteristics and groups ?

How does relate to equity ?

How does the government affect the structure of kinship and family ?

I THE FAMILY A SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED IDEA THE FAMILY A SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED IDEA Elizabeth Pearce To begin our study of contemporary Families in the United States , we will first an important concept that is used for a large portion of this book social constructions . A social construction is a mutual ing and accepted reality created by members of a society something that is not determined by biology or the natural world . Is there anything that humans have created that holds no real value in the natural world , yet we have assigned a great deal to it ?

If you are thinking of cash , you re right on the money . Humans have determined that certain pieces of paper and metal objects are worth an value . For example , in the United States , a one dollar bill is worth 100 times the value of a penny . One of the ways that we can tell money is a social construction is that it varies from culture to culture and over time . When you visit another country , the United States dollar bill has to be exchanged for money that has a different appearance and value . Compare money with another thing to human beings air . Air is needed by all human beings to survive . The need for air and its value do not change over time or from culture to culture . Figure Ii . Reflection of a train on a building .

THE A SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED Social constructions also relate to behavior and activities . For ple , what food would you expect to see on the menu when you go out for breakfast in the United States ?

What if the eating place were described as a Mexican restaurant ?

And what if you traveled to another country , say , Korea ?

What is eaten for breakfast varies from culture to culture and even person to person . And yet , in general , we have a socially constructed idea of what is typically breakfast food in the United States eggs , bacon , cereal , toast , and fruit , but not , noodles , pinto beans , or hot dogs . One of the ways that you can recognize that something is a socially constructed idea is that it differs from place to place and changes over time . In addition , whatever is part of the socially constructed idea ( in this case what typical breakfast foods are ) becomes the norm or what is expected . While we might welcome trying some different foods for breakfast , they are not what is Figure . Breakfast burrito . seen as the typical , or expected , American breakfast foods . What does this have to do with families ?

While studying families , we must continually remind ourselves that the idea of the family , and in particular the internalized belief that there is a normal family , is a social . What is a normal family ?

I suspect that we can each paint a picture in our heads , based on the years each of us has been exposed to portrayals of families in institutions such as the media , schools , government , and health care . Generally , the traditional American family has been as the nuclear family , most often represented as a male and female heterosexual married couple who is middle class , White , and with eral children . When society or the individuals within a society designate one kind of family to be traditional , this may imply a value , or a preference , for this kind of family structure with these particular social . This is sometimes called the Leave it to Beaver family after the popular sitcom television show that ran from 1957 until 1963 , pictured below left . A current popular sitcom , Modern Family , which just concluded its season in 2020 , also features this traditional family , but includes two other families which feature ple of other ethnic groups , and a couple . Together they form an extended family who all live in the same town . It is important to note , however , that the primacy of the upper , White family image continues to be emphasized .

I THE A CONSTRUCTED Figure . families in today . As we study families we must keep in mind that this idea of the typical family is not representative of all , yet it is continually reinforced by the social processes and institutions in our society . Media in continually reminds us of what families are supposed to look like . Whether you consume , social media platforms , video games , or books and magazines , take a look . What kind of people and families do you see represented ?

While representation of women , people of color , and people of differing and gender expressions has increased in media , they still predominantly play less consequential within the plot lines . Although the majority of families in the United States no longer the traditional model , social institutions perpetuate the idea of a certain family structure . Government , schools , medical institutions , businesses , and places of worship all reinforce a typical view of family through the forms , ties , requirements , and processes that are shared with the public . How many times have you tried to out a form with only to that you did not into one of the boxes ?

Typical examples include ing parental choices of mother and father , couple status choices such as married or single , and gender choices such as male or female , all of which reinforce a binary view of individuals and families . The preference for an idealized traditional family type contributes to less social support for families who don this type for example , families , families , rural families , or families with a ber who is disabled , unemployed , or who has a criminal record . Accepted structures and practices such as not being able to access a safe neighborhood or good school because of income , Dances , churches that exclude or condemn ministers or members , and educational materials that not be read with low vision are all examples of ways that some individuals and families are less recognized and . Pew Research Center . 2015 , December 17 ) The American family today .

THE FAMILY SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED less privileged . You can probably think of other examples from your own family perspective . Families exist in multiple forms that are functional . The social construction of difference describes value being assigned to a perceived ( in this case , the form and function of families ) While Allan Johnson wrote about differences in privilege related to social characteristics such as race , ethnicity , gender , and ability , we will extend this concept to the social tion of differences amongst families . Via the socially constructed idea of family , American systems and regularly create and reinforce inequities amongst American families . Equity , Equality , and Fairness You will notice that this text often refers to equity rather than equality or fairness . It important that equity is as everyone having what they need , even if it means that some need to be given more to get there . This drawing by one of the text authors illustrates the difference ( you may have seen different variations of this concept as memes on social media ) If you like to read more about it , this blo has a ood ex . El ' I . Jet ?

I . Equality , Equity , Equity forall . This text asserts that all families need equitable resources , and analyzes the experiences and structures that get in the way . In the first panel of the drawing , although all of the participants have boxes , they do . Johnson , 2006 ) Privilege , power , and difference (

i THE A CONSTRUCTED iDEA not all get to have an equal experience . In the second drawing , the participants can have the viewing experience because the boxes have been equitably distributed . And in the third panel , the structure that limited equitable access has been removed so that all participants can view the game without additional resources . In this text , we will study American families with an emphasis on the current inequities in the United States . To help us understand the socially constructed nature of our view of the family and the systems that affect families , we will take a comparative approach This means that , while our focus is current American families , we will also look at how families have evolved in America , what the practices are of immigrant in America , and how other countries develop systems that affect families . We will also utilize empirical research , data that are collected in a variety of ways , analyzed , and presented to further our understanding . Century American Families While we are studying families , it is important to note the concept of kinship . While vary , it is widely agreed that the term kinship is broader than the term family . Kinship refers to the social structure that ties people together ( whether by blood , marriage , legal processes , or other agreements ) and includes family . Kinship acknowledges that individuals have a role in who is a member of their own family and how familial relationships extend across society . What are families in the United States like today ?

Because we are constrained by both our personal , as well as the societal representations of typical families , it is important to talk about what kinds of kinship structures and changes are actually occurring . At times , the study of families has been referred to as the study of the This text avoids that terminology because we are studying many types of families . In order to describe current American families and kinship structures , it is probably easiest to compare them with families of the past and families in other countries . Here is a snapshot of some kinship patterns There is no longer one dominant family form in the United States children are living in increasingly varied family arrangements . In this chart , based on data from the Pew Research Center , increases are noted in children living with a single parent ( yellow color ) and parents ( gray color ) American Sociological Association . 2020 ) historical approaches .

THE FAMILY A SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED For children , growing diversity in family living arrangements 1960 1980 1014 I marriage I I parents parent I No Figure . Growing diversity in family living arrangements . Data from Pew Research Center . Data for cohabitation was not available in 1960 and 1980 those children were included in the group single Americans are getting married later in life . This graph shows the increase , for both men ( blue ) and women ( red ) in the median age marriage

10 I THE FAMILY A CONSTRUCTED IDEA Median age at marriage I 890 to present ) 30 28 . 26 . Men 24 women . 22 20 2000 2019 Saint Camus Bureau , 1890 to 1900 , and current United sum II nu Survey , Annual . 2019 . Note 2019 , sex um . Figure . A Census graph showing first marriage age going up since the 19505 . Both marriage and divorce rates are declining in the United States . The marriage rate ( blue ) is declining a bit faster than the divorce rate ( red ) which is one of the factors that es it a ear asi is . ec , at a ower rate an is ec

THE FAMILY A SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED IDEA i 11 Marriage and Divorce Rates in the US I Divorce Rate I Marriage Rate 15000 10000 5000 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 Year Figure 17 . Marriage and divorce rates have gone down since the 19905 . This data comes from Statistical Abstract , 2009 based on the US . Census . Fertility rates are declining in the US . Women are having fewer children , following the Baby Boom years between approximately 1946 and 1964 .

12 I THE CONSTRUCTED Trends in the . Fertility Rate ( births per women ages ) Selected Years , 125 100 75 50 25 1940 1954 1968 1975 1989 1996 2010 2017 Figure . Fertility rates in the US have gone down since peaking in 1954 . Families are increasingly living in households . living includes families with two or more adult generations and families that have dren under the age of and grandparents living together . This style of living hit a low of 12 of all families in the in 1980 . Since then , living has increased in most racial and ethnic groups , age groups , and genders . Pew Research . 2018 , April ) Record 64 million Americans live in households .

THE FAMILY A SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED IDEA 13 Americans live in a household 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2009 2016 Figure . The number of Americans who live in households has increased since the low in the 19805 . This graph is based on an analysis by the Pew Research Center based on data from the US Census and American Community Survey . Most expect to work until an older age now than did workers in the Century . trends such as longer life expectancy and being healthier longer people decisions to work longer . Less trends such as concern about having adequate health care coverage , fewer jobs that have pensions associated with them , and the increasing number of workers who have multiple jobs also affect this trend .

14 THE FAMILY A CONSTRUCTED IDEA EXPECTATION OF WORKING AFTER AGE 65 . BY EDUCATION RESPONDENTS AGES IN 1992 . 1993 , AND 2004 ( to work ago Less Than High School Degree High School 40 30 20 10 30 20 10 Male Female Male Female . 1993 . and ) Figure . People are expecting to work longer . This graph shows differentiation by gender and by education level , but there is also differentiation related to wealth , income , and kind of employment . Look at the difference between 1992 ( light blue ) and 2004 ( red ) Notice that for both genders , and with all education levels , people are expecting to work longer ! But expectations do not always match experience , and there is sufficient evidence that older workers are forced out of stable , jobs at a percentage .

THE A CONSTRUCTED I 15 A Majority of Older Americans With Stable Jobs Are Pushed Out of Work Americans who enter their working , positions the steadiest type of work report being pushed out of their jobs by their employers . overall Job Loss ( Job Loss ( Personal Conditions ) Retired Voluntarily 19 Still Working Breakdown of Job Loss Deteriorating Conditions 15 Unexpected Retirement , 56 Kill , the Health and Retirement in source Data Study by ' ie Figure . Most Americans don retire because they want to . To delve into additional data and read more about how this affects families , read If You re Over 50 Chances Are the Decision to Leave a lob Won be Yours a data analysis by and the Urban Institute . Functions of the Family within Society Families have both private and public functions . Notably , American society today is more concerned with the private function of families , which focuses on the intimate relationships that family members share with one another . Americans value the idea that a core part of the family function is the length of loving relationships In the past , and today in other cultures and countries , families were more focused on the public function such as the production of what would be called public goods in an economic model . The most common . A . 2016 ) Public and private families .

16 THE A SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED public good in American families are children , but caring for elderly or adults could also be considered as producing a public good . Volunteering and contributing to places of worship , charitable , and other agencies is another way to perform the public function . As public institutions , families support , contribute to , and from the overall social structure . Although our society currently focuses on the private function , families implicitly perform both these functions are complementary to one another . In this text we will raise awareness of the public function . The focus on the private function of families may relate to the United States identity as an individualistic In America , there is a focus on what individuals can achieve , with value placed on accomplishments that are gained without the support of society . Many other countries have cultures which size social support for all , so that all members of the group are able to meet their goals and needs . Licenses and Open Content , Shared Previously Figure . Photo by . License License . Figure . Breakfast Burrito by . License . Figure . Photo of the Cleaver family by ABC . Public domain . Adaptations juxtaposed with Modern Family photo . Figure . Median age at first marriage by the US Census . Public domain . Figure . Expectation of working full time af er age 65 is from the Health and Retirement Study by the National Institute on Aging . Public domain . Figure . A Americans with stable are pushed out of work by Peter . License . Open Content , Original Figure . Equality , Equity , Equity for All by Katie . License BY . Based on ideas originally illustrated by Angus Maguire and Craig . Morin , A . 2019 , August 19 ) individualistic cultures and behavior . Verywell Mind . Collectivist and individualist cultures Psychology Wiki . Retrieved December 29 , 2019 , from different source ?

A CONSTRUCTED IDEA 17 ure . For children , growing diversity in family living arrangements . License BY on data from Pew Research Center . Marriage and divorce rates in the . License BY 40 . Based on day rom Statistical Abstracts Census . Trends in the . Fertility License BY 40 . Based on data compiled by chi . Americans live in a household . License BY . Based on data from Pew Research Center . All Rights Reserved Content . Modern Family photo ( American Broadcasting Company . Image used USE . juxtaposed with Leave it to Beaver photo .

18 I THE SOCIAL OF DIFFERENCE THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF DIFFERENCE Elizabeth Pearce Social Identities Families are made up of individuals and each individual possesses a unique social identity . A social identity consists of the combination of social characteristics , roles , and group memberships with which a person . Let break down each of those aspects of social identity . Social characteristics can be biologically determined or socially constructed . Sex , gender , race , ethnicity , ability , age , sexuality , nationality , first language , and religion are all social characteristics . Roles indicate the behaviors and patterns utilized , such as parent , partner , sibling , employee , employer , etc . Group memberships are often related to the above characteristics ( a place of worship ) and roles ( a moms group ) but could be more specialized as well , such as being a twin , or a singer , or part of an emotional support group .

THE SOCIAL OF DIFFERENCE I 19 first Language Figure . Social identity wheel . The above Social Identity Wheel includes some mon categories for social characteristics in the middle oval . When it comes to social identity , each of us gets to determine our own . That means we determine which of our social characteristics , roles , and group memberships are most important to our own identities . While each of us gets to determine our own social identity , it is tant to note that others may identify us differently than we identify ourselves . Our most notable physical aspects may signal something different than our personal lived experience .

20 I THE SOCIAL OE DIFFERENCE For example , in this video about cultural humility ( which will be and discussed in the next ter ) Melanie describes her identity as an African American woman , the difference between how she sees herself and how others see her , and the right that each of us has to our own social identity . One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text You can View them online here ' i ?

The founders of Mixed in America ) whose mission is to empower the Mixed community and heal Mixed identity , are two multiracial activists , Jarvis and Kimberly Smith . This is what they had to say about social identity on Taylor Nolan podcast , Let Ta We wan na put the power back in the person hands , so that they can express in a way that makes them feel The Social Construction of Difference Social identities can help us understand the social construction of difference . In the process of forming our own social identities , we connect most easily to people who share the same group membership ( that we do . According to the Social Identity Theory formulated by Henri , we see people who are members of groups as others ! In general , we tend to be drawn to others who are more similar to ourselves , whether by appearance or related to other social characteristics , such as age , ability , or sex . This , in combination with the likelihood of overestimating the similarities within groups and the differences between groups , contributes to the social construction of difference . 2019 ) Social identity theory . Simply Psychology .

THE SOCIAL OE DIFFERENCE 21 THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE The social construction of race deserves a special mention , since there is a broadly held public tion that there are biological and genetic between human beings based on race ( meaning observable physical differences such as skin color ) In actuality , race is a social construct rather than a biological reality . Scientists state that while genetic physical differences such as color are not equivalent to race that many humans notice . In fact , members of the diversity exists , it does not divide along the racial lines human race ( all humans ) share of their Ancestry and geography likely which genes get turned on and expressed . What makes our understanding of race complicated is that we have behaved for centuries as if there is a biological difference . Because there has been a longstanding discriminatory practice against people of color , there are multiple impacts today The reasons for doubting the biological basis for racial categories suggest that race is more of a social category than a biological one . Another way to say this is that race is a social construction , a concept that has no tive reality but rather is what people decide it is . In this view , race has no real existence other than what and how people think of it . 2016 , February ) Race is a social construct , scientists argue . American , National Human Genome Research Institute . 15 ) Whole Genome Association Studies . Berger , Thomas . 1966 ) The social construction of reality . Penguin Books .

22 THE CONSTRUCTION OF Figure . President Barack Obama had an African father and a White mother . Although his ancestry is equally Black and White , Obama considers himself an African American , as do most Americans . In several Latin American nations , however , Obama would be considered White because of his White ancestry . This understanding of race is reflected in the problems of placing people with multiracial backgrounds into any one racial category . Would you consider former President Obama , White , Black , or multiracial ?

He had one Black parent and one White parent . As another example , the golfer Tiger Woods was typically called an African American by the news media when he burst onto the scene in the late , but in fact his ancestry is Asian ( divided evenly between Chinese and Thai ) White , Native American , and only African American Historical examples of attempts to place people in racial categories further underscore the social constructionism of race . In the South during the time of slavery , the skin tone of the enslaved lightened over the years as babies were born from the union , often in the form of rape , of slave owners and other Whites with enslaved people . As it became difficult to tell who was Black and who was not , many court battles over people racial identity occurred . People who were accused of having Black ancestry would go to court to prove they were White in order to avoid enslavement or other problems . Litigation over race continued long past the days of slavery . In a relatively recent example , Susie sued the Louisiana Bureau of Vital Records in the early to change her official race to White . was descended from a slave owner and an enslaved person and thereafter had only White ancestors . Despite this fact , she was called Black on her birth because of a state law , echoing the rule , that designated ple as Black if their ancestry was at least Black ( meaning one of their grandparents was Black ) had always thought of herself as White and was surprised after seeing a copy of her birth cate to discover she was officially Black because she had one Black ancestor about 150 years earlier . She lost her case , and the Supreme Court later refused to review . 2001 ) The sum of our parts Asian Americans . Temple University Press . Staples , 1998 , November 15 ) Opinion Editorial Observer The shifting meanings of black and The New York Times . 2015 ) Racial formation in the United States ( Third edition ) Francis Group .

THE SOCIAL OF 23 Social Construction of Other Social Identities , including Gender It is important to note that the social construction of gender is another widely accepted concept . In other words , the differences that we attribute to the biological designation of female , male , or intersex are actually predominantly constructed by our societal beliefs , and not by biology . The recent broadening of gender and expression clearly demonstrates this concept . Other identities are also constructed via societal agreement . Sexuality , ability , religion , ethnicity , age , and other identities may contain some physical parameters , and certainly contain meaning to the individuals that possess them . Critical to our study of families , however , is the understanding that society creates and reinforces social construction of these characteristics and those constructions favor some groups , discriminate against others , and generally impact the lives of families . I Articulated by legal scholar Crenshaw ( 1991 ) the concept of a mode of analysis integral to women , gender , and sexuality studies . Within intersectional , race , class , der , sexuality , age , ability , and other aspects of identity are experienced simultaneously and the meanings of different aspects of identity are shaped by one another . In other words , notions of gender and the way a person gender is interpreted by others are always impacted by notions of Figure by legal Scholar race and the way that person race is interpreted . For the of example , a person is never received as just a woman , but identifies a mode of analysis integral to women , gender Sexuality Studies how that person is impacts how the person is received as a woman . So , notions of blackness , brownness , and whiteness always experience , and there is no experience of gender that is outside of an experience of race . In addition to race , experience is also shaped by age , sexuality , class , and ability likewise , the experience of race is impacted by gender , age , class , sexuality , and ability .

24 I THE OF DIFFERENCE Understanding requires a particular way of thinking . It is different than the ways in which many people imagine identities operate . An intersectional analysis of identity is distinct from identity models which presume that one aspect of ( say , gender ) dictates one access to or ment from power . An example of this idea is the concept of global sisterhood , or the idea that all women across the globe share some basic common political interests , concerns , and If women in different locations did Figure An perspective examines how identities are related to each other in our own experiences and now the social structures of race , class , gender , sexuality , age , a global scale . Unfortunately , if the analysis of social and ability intersect for everyone . share common interests , it would make sense for them to unite on the basis of gender to for social changes on problems stops at gender , what is missed is an attention to how various cultural shaped by race , religion , and access to resources may actually place some women needs at to other women needs . Therefore , this approach obscures the fact that women in different social and geographic locations face different problems . Although many White , class women activists of the century US fought for freedom to work and legal parity with men , this was not the major problem for women of color or White women who had already been actively participating in the US labor market as domestic workers , factory workers , and enslaved laborers since early US colonial settlement . Campaigns for women equal legal rights and access to the labor market at the level are shaped by the experience and concerns of White American women , while women of the Global South , in particular , may have more pressing concerns access to clean water , access to adequate health care , and safety from the physical and psychological harms of living in tyrannical , or economically nations . Gender is too often used simply and erroneously to mean White women , while race too often notes Black An intersectional perspective examines how identities are related to each other in our own experiences and how the social structures of race , class , gender , sexuality , age , and ability intersect for one . As opposed to and additive models of identity , an intersectional approach develops a more sophisticated understanding of the world and how individuals in differently situated social groups differential access to both material and symbolic resources such as privilege . Morgan , 2016 ) Sisterhood is global The international women movement anthology . Open Road Media .

THE CONSTRUCTION OF 25 Licenses and Open Content , Shared Previously Social Construction of Race is adapted from The Meaning of Race and in Sociology Understanding and Changing the Social World by Anonymous . License . Adaptation rewritten for clarity . is adapted from Introduction to Women Gender Sexuality Studies by Kang Donovan and Laura , Libraries . License BY . switched images . Figure . Photo by . License License . Figure . Photo by . License License . Figure . Barack Obama on the Primary by Steve . License BY . Figure . Crenshaw by Mohamed . License . Figure . Photo by Liam . License License . Open Content , Original Figure . Social identity wheel by Liz Pearce . License BY . All Rights Reserved Content Cultural Edited ( Jordan . License Terms Standard YouTube license .

26 i THE GOVERNMENT AND THE GOVERNMENT AND FAMILIES Elizabeth Pearce One of the most , if not the most , powerful social institutions in the is the government . It is important to note that in the United States , the federal government has three branches the Congress , the Executive ( ident ) and the Judicial or Court System . In addition , the Constitution recognizes the rights and ties of state governments counties and cities have governing structures as well . If you like to read more about the of the Constitution . click here . All of these structures legislate in ways that affect families , some directly and some indirectly . The United States is considered to be a Common Law country , meaning that laws are derived in three ways legislation created by governing bodies administrative rules and regulations and decisions via judicial courts . Family Composition Most family law ( including marriage , divorce , and adoption ) is governed by the states . When there is a great deal of advocacy , unrest , inequity , or controversy , matters rise to the federal level . Here are two relatively recent examples . In 1958 , Mildred Loving , a woman of color , and her White husband , Richard Loving , were sentenced to a year of prison for marrying each other , breaking Virginia Racial Integrity Act of The ings appealed their conviction in Virginia and to the Supreme Court , who ruled in 1967 ( Loving Virginia ) that all laws banning interracial marriage were violations of the Amendment of the Constitution . That made it illegal for individual states to restrict marriage . To read a summary ofthe Supreme Figure 65305 and Robert were a prominent interracial couple . Court case click here . More recently , the ruling on Loving Virginia has been utilized to argue that laws banning marriages were also unconstitutional . Between 2012 and 2014 , plaintiffs from multiple states in state courts to overturn state laws that criminalized marriages . While several district courts found these laws to be unconstitutional , one district

THE US GOVERNMENT AND 27 court ruled in favor of the constitutionality of these laws . With the split between courts , the case rose to the level of the Supreme Court , which ruled in 2015 that all states must perform and recognize marriages between couples ( Hodges ) No laws passed Before 1887 1948 to 1967 12 June 1967 Figure . Dates of repeal of US laws by state . Of note is that while the 1967 decision to legalize interracial marriage was a unanimous decision , the 2015 sion to legalize marriage was closely contested among the Court members and passed by a narrow margin . How would you interpret the differentiated results of these decisions ?

It appears that there is still agreement amongst the most powerful in this country about whether the language in the Fourteenth ment applies to marriage , gay and lesbian people , or neither . The Amendment states in part No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States nor shall any state deprive any person of life , liberty , or property , without due process of law nor deny to any son within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws .

28 THE US GOVERNMENT AND From Loving Virginia ( 1967 ) and Hodges ( 2015 ) we can derive some understanding that governments whom we marry , how we divorce , and the legal relationships , rights , and taxes related to parenting , kinship structures , and children . Critically we must note that the government places value on socially constructed differences such as race , ethnicity , and sexuality in ways that impact individual and family choice . 2015 the Us Supreme Court Laws are only one ofthe ways that government impacts decided , by a narrow margin , to legalize family composition . Consider the federal government role in taxing individuals and families and then providing redistribution of that money via . such as food stamps , Temporary Aid for Needy Families ( school lunches , and aid for college are all distributed and regulated by the government . Tax credits , such as the Child and Dependent Care Credit , are driven by the government related to that tax . the government of eligibility and family structure impact who receives and how much they receive . If the government family or dependent in a way , does that impact how families form ?

For ple , college aid does not count the income of a roommate or domestic partner in an applicant income , but it does count the income of a spouse . Might this a college student decision to marry ?

While this union is not criminalized as the previous two examples were , it is still impacted by the government criteria related to distributing . Some of us might decide to marry or not to marry based on the federal government criteria for or taxes . Family Residence , Kinship Structure , and Equity While is considered by many family theorists to be a pillar of the of family , it is tant to note that not all families live together . In fact , the government has played a role in separating family members from one another ( immigrant and enslaved families in particular ) Sometimes the United States has been idealized as a melting pot or even a salad bowl of cultures and ethnicities . People often immigrate to this country to make a better life for themselves and their families . The borders of the United States were open up until the late , when the restrictive immigration law was enacted the Page Act of 1875 , which excluded Chinese women . This act separated families and was intended to discourage Chinese laborers from staying in the United States .

THE US GOVERNMENT AND 29 By 1882 , Chinese men were excluded as well . Since that time , there have been numerous restrictive versions of immigration laws in the United States , most of them geting people from Asian and Latin American countries . Wikipedia provides a list of major immigration laws from 1790 through 2012 here . And in this article in The Atlantic magazine more recent laws and practices are cussed . In combination with these laws , the United States has continued to rely on immigrant labor to perform less desirable and jobs , in agriculture , Figure . Since 1882 , numerous US . immigration have targeted from sanitation , service , and cleaning . There will be more arid Latin Ame of the effects on these families in the food , employment , and housing chapters . Restrictive tion laws and policies have contributed to the formation of involuntary transnational families , families whose members live on different continents or in different countries . Another related idealization of the United States originates in the Declaration of Independence , which states , We hold these truths to be , that all men are created equal , that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights , that among these are Life , Liberty and the pursuit of It is difficult to defend equality as a fundamental right , both when the document was written and today as well . The most obvious example is the enslavement of people from Africa , who were intentionally imprisoned and brought to this country for that purpose . The Declaration of Independence goes on to describe the institution of governments to secure these rights . But the government secured the rights of life , liberty , and the pursuit of happiness for one group of people ( enslaved another group ( African Americans ) and used legal means to oppress Native Americans and immigrants . Slavery dramatically affected family formations and kinship structures . Because human beings were ered property , their family ties were not respected , which meant that children were habitually separated from parents , adults were not able to marry at will , and spouses were removed from one another at the will of the Violence against women in the form of rape resulted in parenting relationships that were structured and controlled by the owners . To understand in more about the treatment of people who were enslaved read Boundless US chapter about slave treatment sexual abuses and publications about maintaining White dominance . During the writing of the Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution , both free and enslaved African Americans played active roles . About 20 of enslaved people escaped and sought sanctuary . et al . 1776 , The declaration of independence transcription . National Archives .

30 THE US GOVERNMENT AND amongst Native Americans or the British during the war . Many fought in the war , including Private Haynes , who believed that the revolution should also be a war against slavery . He The Declaration of Independence , saying the document principle of freedom should put an end to slavery . Thousands of Black for freedom participated in the emancipation of the United States from As Dean Spade writes in the introduction to Normal Life Social movements engaged in resistance have given us a very different portrayal the United States than what is taught in most elementary school classrooms and textbooks . he patriotic narrative delivered at school tells us a few key lies about US law and politics that the United States is a democracy in which law and policy derive from what majority of people think is best , that the United States used to be racist and sexist but is now fair and neutral than to changes in the law , and that if particular groups experience harm , they can appeal to the law for tion . Social movements have challenged this narrative , identifying the United States as a settler colony and a racial project , founded and built through genocide and enslavement . hey have shown that the United States has always had laws that arrange people through categories of indigeneity , race , gender , ability , and national origin to produce populations with levels of vulnerability to economic exploitation , violence , and poverty ?

Ortiz , 2018 ) An African American and Latin ) history of the United States . Beacon Press . Spade , 2015 ) Normal life Administrative violence , critical trans politics , and the limits of law ( Revised and expanded edition ) Duke University Press .

THE US GOVERNMENT AND 31 Conclusion DO I ROLL BACK Figure . Understanding how structures like institutions and societal views limit families can help us to strive for equity . In this text we will discuss the ways in which social institutions and processes continue to reinforce the inequities created within the original formation of the United States . We will focus on the federal government and the tension that exists between federal powers and state rights , which often leads to inequities amongst American families . We will examine other social institutions such as school systems , health structures , the economy , businesses , and places of worship . We will look at the nature of people and institutions the ways that individuals and families organize to create social movements that ing practices and structures , and the ways those practices and structures people . By examining the existing structures that limit families , we strive to be a part of the change that will form our institutions , societal views , and processes in a way that increases and supports equity for all families .

32 I THE US . GOVERNMENT AND Licenses and Open Content , Shared Previously Figure . Robert De and Grace Hightower at the Fair for the 2012 Film Festival by David bone . License BY 30 . Figure . Dates of repeal of US laws by state by . License BY . moved key closer to image . Figure 120 . Photo by ary er as part of Broadly Gender Spectrum Collection . License . Figure 121 . Chinese miners Idaho Springs by James Underhill . Public domain . Figure . employment rights by Victoria Pickering . License .