Child Growth and Development Chapter 14 Adolescence – Cognitive Development

Chapter 14 Adolescence Cognitive Development Chapter Objectives After this chapter , you should be able to Describe formal operational stage and the characteristics of formal operational thought Compare Theories Lawrence Moral Development and Carol Morality of Care Explain the Information Processing Theory Describe the strategies for memory storage Explain the areas of transition for adolescence Introduction During adolescence more complex thinking abilities emerge . Researchers suggest this is due to increases in processing speed and efficiency rather than as the result of an increase in mental other words , due to improvements in existing skills rather than development of new ones ( 1987 Case , 1985 ) Let explore these improvements . Cognitive Development in Adolescence During adolescence , teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought . Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view , imagine hypothetical situations , debate ideas and opinions ( politics , religion , and justice ) and form new ideas . In addition , it not uncommon for adolescents to question authority or challenge established societal norms . Cognitive empathy , also known as , which relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others ( 2005 ) Cognitive empathy begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance . According to one longitudinal study , levels of cognitive empathy begin rising in girls around 13 years old , and around 15 years old in boys ( Van der et , 2013 ) Cognitive Changes in the Brain Early in adolescence , changes in Dopamine , a chemical in the brain that is a neurotransmitter and produces feelings of pleasure , can contribute to increases in adolescents and reward motivation . During adolescence , people tend to do whatever activities produce the Psychology Stages of Development by Psychology is licensed under BY 40 Growth and Development

most dopamine without fully considering the consequences of such actions . Later in adolescence , the prefrontal cortex , the area of the brain responsible for outcomes , forming judgments , controlling impulses and emotions , also continues to develop ( Goldberg , 2001 ) The difference in timing of the development of these different regions of the brain contributes to more risk taking during middle adolescence because adolescents are motivated to seek thrills ( 2008 ) One of the world leading experts on adolescent development , Laurence , likens this to engaging a powerful engine before the braking system is in place . The result is that adolescents are prone to risky behaviors more often than children or adults . Figure simulation ofthe risky drinking and driving ?

Although the most rapid cognitive changes occur during childhood , the brain continues to develop throughout adolescence , and even into the 205 ( 2005 ) The brain continues to form new neural connections and becomes faster and more efficient because it prunes , or casts off unused neurons and connections ( 2008 ) and produces myelin , the fatty tissue that forms around axons and neurons , which helps speed transmissions between different regions ofthe brain ( et , 1999 ) This time of rapid cognitive growth for teens , making them more aware of their potential and capabilities , causes a great amount of disequilibrium for them . Theorists have researched cognitive changes and functions and have formed theories based on this developmental period Cognitive Theorists , and Jean Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes , and cognitive development refers to term changes in these processes . One of the most widely known perspectives about cognitive development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist named Jean . created and studied an account of how children and youth gradually become able to think logically and scientifically . Because his theory is especially popular among educators , we focus on it in this chapter . Image by the Scott Air Force Base is in the public domain Content by Dawn is licensed under BY 40 Adolescent Development by Jennifer is licensed under Growth and Development

was a psychological constructivist in his view , learning was proceeded by the interplay of assimilation ( adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts ) and accommodation ( adjusting concepts to fit new experiences ) The ofthese two processes leads not only to term learning , but also to developmental change . The developments are really the main focus of cognitive theory . As you might remember , proposed that cognition developed through distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence . By stages he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features . They always happen in the same order . No stage is ever skipped . Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it . Each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself . Basically this is the staircase model of development . proposed four major stages of cognitive development , and called them ( sensorimotor intelligence , thinking , concrete operational thinking , and ( formal operational thinking . Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood , but only approximately . Formal operational thinking appears in During the formal operational stage , adolescents are able to understand abstract principles . They are no longer limited by what can be directly seen or heard , and are able to contemplate such constructs as beauty , love , freedom , and morality . Additionally , while younger children solve problems through trial and error , adolescents demonstrate reasoning , which is developing hypotheses based on what might logically occur . They are able to think about all the possibilities in a situation beforehand , and then test them systematically , Crain , 2005 ) because they are able to engage in true scientific thinking . Figure Teenage thinking is characterized by the ability to reason logically and solve hypothetical problems such as how to design , plan , and build a Educational Psychology Cognitive Development The Theory by Kelvin and Rosemary Sutton is licensed under BY Image by the Army is licensed under BY Growth and Development

Hypothesis Creation FORMAL OPERATIONS Hypothesis Testing Deduction Figure proposed that formal operational thinking is the last stage in cognitive Does everyone reach formal operations ?

According to , most people attain some degree of formal operational thinking , but use formal operations primarily in the areas oftheir strongest interest ( Crain , 2005 ) In fact , most adults do not regularly demonstrate formal operational thought . A possible explanation is that an thinking has not been sufficiently challenged to demonstrate formal operational thought in all areas . Adolescent Egocentrism Once adolescents can understand abstract thoughts , they enter a world of hypothetical possibilities and demonstrate egocentrism , a heightened . The egocentricity comes from attributing unlimited power to their own thoughts ( Crain , 2005 ) believed it was not until adolescents took on adult roles that they would be able to learn the limits to their own thoughts . David ( 1967 ) expanded on the concept of adolescent egocentricity . theorized that the physiological changes that occur during adolescence result in adolescents being primarily concerned with themselves . Additionally , since adolescents fail to differentiate Image by Ian is licensed under BY . Growth and Development

between what others are thinking and their own thoughts , they believe that others are just as fascinated with their behavior and appearance . This belief results in the adolescent anticipating the reactions of others , and consequently constructing an imaginary audience . The imaginary audience is the belief that those around them are as concerned and focused on their appearance as they themselves are ( Schwartz , Maynard , 2008 , 441 ) thought that the imaginary audience contributed to the that occurs during early adolescence . The desire for privacy and the reluctance to share personal information may be a further reaction to feeling under constant observation by others . Figure This teen is likely thinking , they must be whispering about me . Another important consequence of adolescent egocentrism is the personal fable or belief that one is unique , special , and invulnerable to harm . 1967 ) explains that because adolescents feel so important to others ( imaginary audience ) they regard themselves and their feelings as being special and unique . Adolescents believe that only they have experienced strong and diverse emotions , and therefore others could never understand how they feel . This uniqueness in one emotional experiences reinforces the adolescent belief of invulnerability , especially to death . Adolescents will engage in risky behaviors , such as drinking and driving or unprotected sex , and feel they will not suffer any negative consequences . believed that adolescent egocentricity emerged in early adolescence and declined in middle adolescence , however , recent research has also identified egocentricity in late adolescence ( Schwartz , et , 2008 ) Consequences of Formal Operational Thought As adolescents are now able to think abstractly and hypothetically , they exhibit many new ways of reflecting on information ( 2011 ) For example , they demonstrate greater introspection or thinking about one thoughts and feelings . They begin to imagine how the world could be , which leads them to become idealistic or insisting upon high standards of behavior . Because of their idealism , they may become critical of others , especially adults in Image by Students is licensed under Growth and Development

their life . Additionally , adolescents can demonstrate hypocrisy , or pretend to be what they are not . Since they are able to recognize what others expect ofthem , they will conform to those expectations for their emotions and behavior seemingly hypocritical to themselves . Lastly , adolescents can exhibit , which is when they approach problems at a level that is too complex and they fail because the tasks are too simple . Their new ability to consider alternatives is not completely under control and they appear stupid when they are in fact bright , just inexperienced ?

1963 ) built on the work of and was interested in finding out how our moral reasoning changes as we get older . He wanted to find out how people decide what is right and what is wrong ( moral justice ) Just as believed that children cognitive development follows specific patterns , argued that we learn our moral values through active thinking and reasoning , and that moral development follows a series of stages . six stages are generally organized into three levels of moral reasons . To study moral development , posed moral dilemmas to children , teenagers , and adults . You may remember one such dilemma , the dilemma , that was introduced in Chapter A woman was on her deathbed . There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her . It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered . The drug was expensive to make , but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce . He paid 200 for the radium and charged for a small dose of the drug . The sick husband , went to everyone he knew to borrow the money , but he could only get together about which is half of what it cost . He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later . But the druggist said No , I discovered the drug and I going to make money from So got desperate and broke into the man laboratory to steal the drug for his wife . Should have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife ?

Why or why not ?

Based on their reasoning behind their responses ( not whether they thought made the right choice or not ) placed each person in one ofthe stages as described in the image on the following page Lifespan Development A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under Lifespan Development Module Middle Childhood references 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura , which is licensed under BY Beginning Psychology Chapter Growing and Developing by Charles is licensed under 30 Dilemma by Wikipedia is licensed under BY Growth and Development

STAGE Universal Ethical Principles hat if everybody did that ?

Human life has supreme Inherent value . I could live with myself if I let STAGE Social Contract Ori It the consensus of thoughtful men . Society has a right to insure its own survival . I could hold my head up in public if I let her die . MORALITY STAGE A Law and Order Orientation 21 Do . OE Saving a human life is more important than protecting property . um STAGE Good Boy , Nice Do it for me He should do it because he loves his wife . STAGE Orientation If it feels good , do it . If his wife is nice and pretty , he should do ' STAGE Punishment and Obedience Orientation It to do it if you do get caught . depends on who he knows on the police force . Figure six stages of moral Although research has supported idea that moral reasoning changes from an early emphasis on punishment and social rules and regulations to an emphasis on more general ethical principles , as with approach , stage model is probably too simple . For one , children may use higher levels of reasoning for some types of problems , but revert to lower levels in situations where doing so is more consistent with their goals or beliefs ( Rest , 1979 ) Second , it has been argued that this stage model is particularly appropriate for Western countries , rather than , samples in which allegiance to social norms ( such as respect for authority ) may be particularly important ( 2001 ) In addition , there is little correlation between how children score on the moral stages and how they behave in real life . 11 Image by Lawrence , Em Griffin , and is licensed under Growth and Development

Perhaps the most important critique of theory is that it may describe the moral development of boys better than it describes that of girls . Carol has argued that , because of differences in their socialization , males tend to value principles ofjustice and rights , whereas females value caring for and helping others . Although there is little evidence that boys and girls score differently on stages of moral development ( 1998 ) it is true that girls and women tend to focus more on issues of caring , helping , and connecting with others than do boys and men ( Hyde , 2000 ) Carol , whose ideas center on a morality of care , or system of beliefs about human responsibilities , care , and consideration for others , proposed three moral positions that represent different or breadth of ethical care . Unlike , or , she does not claim that the positions form a strictly developmental sequence , but only that they can be ranked hierarchically according to their depth or subtlety . In this respect her theory is developmental in a way similar to theory of motivation ( Brown , 1992 Taylor , Sullivan , 1995 ) The following table summarizes the three moral positions from theory Table Positions of Moral Development According to Moral Positions Definition of What is Morally Good Position Survival Orientation Action that considers one personal needs only Action that considers others needs or preferences but no Position Conventional Care , one own Action that attempts to coordinate one own personal Position Integrated Care needs with those of Others The most basic kind of caring is a survival orientation , in which a person is concerned primarily with his or her own welfare . As a moral position , a survival orientation is obviously not satisfactory for classrooms on a widespread scale . If every student only looked out for himself or herself alone , classroom life might become rather unpleasant . Nonetheless , there are situations in which caring primarily about yourself is both a sign of good mental health and also relevant to teachers . For a child who has been bullied at school or sexually abused at home , for example , it is both healthy and morally desirable to speak out about the bullying or essentially looking out for the victim own needs at the expense of others , including the or abuser . Speaking out requires a survival orientation and is healthy because in this case , the child is at least caring about herself . 12 Beginning Psychology Chapter Growing and Developing by Charles is licensed under Growth and Development

A more subtle moral position is caring for others , in which a person is concerned about others happiness and welfare , and about reconciling or integrating others needs where they conflict with each other . In classrooms , students who operate from Position can be very desirable in some ways they can be kind , considerate , and good at fitting in and at working with others . Because these qualities are very welcome in a busy classroom , it can be tempting for teachers to reward students for developing and using them for much of their school careers . The problem with rewarding Position ethics , however , is that doing so neglects the or her own academic and personal goals or values . Sooner or later , personal goals , values and identity need attention , and educators have a responsibility for assisting students to discover and clarify them . Unfortunately for teachers , students who know what they want may sometimes be more assertive and less automatically compliant than those who do not . The most developed form of moral caring in model is integrated caring , the coordination of personal needs and values with those of others . Now the morally good choice takes account of everyone including yourself , not everyone except yourself . In classrooms , integrated caring is most likely to surface whenever teachers give students wide , sustained freedom to make choices . If students have little flexibility about their actions , there is little room for considering anyone needs or values , whether their own or others . If the teacher says simply , Do the homework on page 50 and turn it in tomorrow morning , then compliance becomes the main issue , not moral choice . But suppose instead that she says something like this Over the next two months , figure out an inquiry project about the use of water resources in our town . Organize it any way you to people , read widely about it , and share it with the class in a way that all of us , including yourself , will find Although an assignment this general or abstract may not suit some teachers or students , it does pose moral challenges for those who do use it . Why ?

For one thing , students can not simply carry out specific instructions , but must decide what aspect ofthe topic really matters to them . The choice is partly a matter of personal values . For another thing , students have to consider how the topic might be meaningful or important to others in the class . Third , because the time line for completion is relatively far in the future , students may have to weigh personal priorities ( like spending time with family on the weekend ) against educational priorities ( working on the assignment a bit more on the weekend ) Some students might have trouble making good choices when given this sort of their teachers might therefore be cautious about giving such an assignment . But in a way these hesitations are part of point integrated caring is indeed more demanding than the caring based on survival or orientation to others , and not all students may be ready for it . 13 13 Educational Psychology Moral Development forming a sense of rights and responsibilities by Psychology is licensed under BY Contemporary Educational Student Development by is licensed under Growth and Development

We learned that major changes in the structure and functioning of the brain occur during adolescence and result in the theories about cognitive and behavioral developments ( 2008 ) These cognitive changes include how information is processed , and are fostered by improvements in cognitive function during early adolescence such as in memory , encoding , and storage as well as ability to think about thinking , therefore becoming better at information processing Information Processing Theory Memory , Encoding , and Storage I , IT Figure brain developments during adolescence allow for greater information processing Memory Memory is an information processing system that we often compare to a computer . Memory is the set of processes used to encode , store , and retrieve information over different periods of time . ENCODING RETRIEVAL Figure memory Content by Dawn is licensed under BY 40 15 Image by on Image by Ian is licensed under BY Growth and Development

Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system . Storage is the retention of the encoded information . Retrieval , or getting the information out of memory and back into awareness , is the third function . Encoding ( Input of Information to Memory ) We get information into our brains through a process called encoding , which is the input of information into the memory system . Once we receive sensory information from the environment , our brains label or code it . We organize the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts . Encoding information occurs through both automatic processing and effortful processing . For example , if someone asks you what you ate for lunch today , more than likely you could recall this information quite easily . This is known as automatic processing , or the encoding of details like time , space , frequency , and the meaning of words . Automatic processing is usually done without any conscious awareness . Recalling the last time you studied for a test is another example of automatic processing . But what about the actual test material you studied ?

It probably required a lot of work and attention on your part to encode that information this is known as effortful processing . When you first learn new skills such as driving a car , you have to put forth effort and attention to encode information about how to start a car , now to brake , how to handle a turn , and so on . Once you know how to drive , you can encode additional information about this skill automatically . Storage ( Retaining Information in Memory ) Once the information has been encoded , we have to retain it . Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage . Storage is the creation of a permanent record of information . In order for a memory to go into storage ( memory ) it has to pass through three distinct stages Sensory Memory , Memory , and finally Memory . These stages were first proposed by Richard and Richard ( 1968 ) Their model of human memory , called ( is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information . Growth and Development

Unrehearsed Some information will information is lost . be lost over time . Figure According to the model of memory , information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in Unattended information is lost . In the model , stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory memory , storage of brief sensory events , such as sights , sounds , and tastes . It is very brief to a couple of seconds . We are constantly bombarded with sensory information . We can not absorb all of it , or even most of it . And most of it has no impact on our lives . For example , what was your professor wearing the last class period ?

As long as the professor was dressed appropriately , it does not really matter what they were wearing . Sensory information about sights , sounds , smells , and even textures , which we do not view as valuable information , we discard . If we view something as valuable , the information will move into our memory system . One study of sensory memory researched the significance of valuable information on term memory storage . discovered a memory phenomenon in the you will name a color more easily if it appears printed in that color , which is called the effect . The Effect describes why it is difficult for us to name a color when the word and the color of the word are different . To test this out a person is instructed not to read the words below , but to say the color the word is printed in . For example , upon seeing the word yellow in green print , they should say green , not This experiment is fun , but it not as easy as it seems . Red Blue Yellow Orange Purple Orange Green Yellow Black Yellow Green Red Purple Blue Purple 17 Image by is licensed under ( image modified by Ian from ) Growth and Development

memory is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory sometimes it is called working memory . memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in memory . memory storage lasts about 20 seconds . Think of memory as the information you have displayed on your computer document , a spreadsheet , or a web page . Information in memory either goes to memory ( when you save it to your hard drive ) or it is discarded ( when you delete a document or close a web browser ) George Miller ( 1956 ) in his research on the capacity of memory , found that most people can retain about seven items in memory . Some remember five , some nine , so he called the capacity of memory the range of seven items plus or minus two . To explore the capacity and duration of memory , two people can try this activity . One person reads the strings of random numbers below out loud to the other , beginning each string by saying , Ready ?

and ending each by saying , Then the second person should try to write down the string of numbers from memory . 9754 68259 913825 5316842 86951372 719384273 6419 67148 648327 5963827 51739826 163875942 This can be used to determine the longest string of digits that you can store . For most people , this will be close to seven , Miller famous seven plus or minus two . Recall is somewhat better for random numbers than for random letters ( Jacobs , 1887 ) and is also often slightly better for information we hear ( acoustic encoding , which is the encoding of sounds ) rather than what we see ( visual encoding , which is the encoding of images and words in particular ) Anderson , 1969 ) memory is the continuous storage of information . Unlike memory , the storage capacity of memory has no limits . It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days , weeks , and years ago . In keeping with the computer analogy , the information in your memory would be like the information you have saved on the hard drive . It is there on your desktop ( your memory ) but you can pull up this information when you want it , at least most of the time . Not all memories are strong memories . Some memories can only be recalled through prompts . For example , you might easily recall a What is the capital of the United States ?

a How do you ride a bike ?

you might struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you had dinner at when you were on vacation in France last summer . A prompt , such as that the restaurant was named after its owner , who spoke to you about your shared interest in soccer , may help you recall ( retrieve ) the name of the restaurant . Growth and Development

Retrieval ( Finding Memories ) 50 you have worked hard to encode via effortful processing ( a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information ) and store some important information for your upcoming final exam . How do you get that information back out of storage when you need it ?

The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness is known as retrieval . This would be similar to finding and opening a paper you had previously saved on your computer hard drive . Now it back on your desktop , and you can work with it again . Our ability to retrieve information from memory is vital to our everyday functioning . You must be able to retrieve information from memory in order to do everything from knowing how to brush your hair and teeth , to driving to work , to knowing how to perform your job once you get there . Memory Retrieval ( Storage System ) Recall , Recognition , and Forgetting There are three ways you can retrieve information out of your memory storage system recall , recognition , and . Recall is what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval it means you can access information without cues . For example , you would use recall for an essay test . Recognition happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again . It involves a process of comparison . When you take a test , you are relying on recognition to help you choose the correct answer . The third form of retrieval is , and it just what it sounds like , it involves learning information that you previously learned . Whitney took Spanish in high school , but after high school she did not have the opportunity to speak Spanish . Whitney is now 31 , and her company has offered her an opportunity to work in their Mexico City office . In order to prepare herself , she in a Spanish course at the local community college . She surprised at how quickly she able to pick up the language after not speaking it for 13 years this is an example of . Forgetting ( It Was Locked In ) As we just learned , your brain must do some work ( effortful processing ) to encode information and move it into , and ultimately memory . This has strong implications for a student , as it can impact their learning if one does work to encode and store information , it will likely be forgotten . Research indicates that people forget 80 percent of what they learn only a day later . This statistic may not sound very encouraging , given all that you expected to learn and remember as a college student . Really , though , it points to the importance of a study strategy other than waiting until the night before a final exam to review a semester worth of readings and notes . When you learn something new , the goal is to lock it in sooner rather than later , and move it from memory to memory , where it can be accessed when you need it ( like at the end of the semester for your final exam or maybe years from now ) The next section will explore a variety of strategies that can be used to process information more deeply and help improve 18 Memory and Information Processing by Laura Lucas is licensed under BY 40 Growth and Development

Memory Strategies Knowing What to Know How can you decide what to study and what you need to know ?

The answer is to prioritize what you trying to learn and memorize , rather than trying to tackle all of it . Below are some strategies to help you do this I Think about concepts rather than facts Most of the time instructors are concerned about you learning about the key concepts in a subject or course rather than specific facts . I Take cues from your instructor Pay attention to what your instructor writes on the board , mentions repeatedly in class , or includes in study guides and handouts , they are likely core concepts that you want to focus on . Look for key terms Textbooks will often put key terms in bold or italics . Use summaries Read end of chapter summaries , or write your own , to check your understanding of the main elements of the reading . Transferring Information from Memory to Memory In the previous discussion of how memory works , the importance of making intentional efforts to transfer information from to memory was noted . Below are some strategies to facilitate this process I Start reviewing new material immediately Remember that people typically forget a significant amount of new information within 24 hours of learning it . Study frequently for shorter periods of time If you want to improve the odds of recalling course material by the time of an exam or in future class , try reviewing it a little bit every day . Strengthening your Memory How can you work to strengthen your overall memory ?

Some people have stronger memories than others but memorizing new information takes work for anyone . Below are some strategies that can aid memory I Rehearsal One strategy is rehearsal , or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered ( Watkins , 1973 ) Academic learning comes with time and practice , and at some point the skills become second nature . Incorporate visuals Visual aids like note cards , concept maps , and highlighted text are ways of making information stand out . These aids make the information to be memorized seem more manageable and less daunting . Create mnemonics Memory devices known as mnemonics can help you retain information while only needing to remember a unique phrase or letter pattern that stands out . They are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of information such as steps , stages , phases , and parts of a system ( 1981 ) There are different types of mnemonic devices 19 and Information by Laura Lucas is licensed under BY 40 Growth and Development

Memory Strategies Acronym An acronym is a word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember . Such as HOMES for the Great Lakes ( Huron , Michigan , and Superior ) Acrostic In an acrostic , you make a phrase of all the first letters of the words . For example , if you need to remember the order of mathematical operations , recalling the sentence Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally will help you , because the order of mathematical operations is Parentheses , Exponents , Multiplication , Division , Addition , Subtraction . Jingles Rhyming tunes that contain key words related to the concept , such as i before , except after are jingles . Visual Using a visual to help you remember is also useful . Such as the knuckle mnemonic shown in the image below to help you remember the number of days in each month . Months with 31 days are represented by the protruding knuckles and shorter months fall in the spots between knuckles . MARCH 131 AUGUST 30 SEPTEMBER 31 OCTOBER ) Sat NOVEMBER A Lil DECEMBER Figure You might use a mnemonic device to help you remember someone name , a mathematical formula , or the six levels of Bloom Another strategy is , where you organize information into manageable bits or chunks , such as turning a phone number you remember into chunks . Connect new information to old information It easier to remember new information if you can connect it to old information , a familiar frame of reference , or a personal experience . by Laura Lucas is licensed under BY Growth and Development

Memory Strategies Get quality sleep Although some people require more or less sleep than the recommended amount , most people should aim for six to eight hours every night . Adolescence ( A Time of Transitions ) Cognitive growth and a new found sense of freedom and independence makes it both easier and more difficult for teens when making choices and coping with upcoming transitions and life decisions . As Adolescents grow older , they encounter transition points that require them to progress into a new role , such as go to college , take a year off or Gap Year , or start to work towards a career . Educational expectations vary not only from culture to culture , but also from class to class . While or families may expect their daughter or son to attend a university after graduating from high school , other families may expect their child to immediately begin working , as many within their families have done Academic Achievement Adolescents spend more waking time in school than in any other context ( Eccles , 2011 ) Academic achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal ( parental engagement in adolescents education ) intrinsic motivation ) and institutional ( school quality ) factors . Academic achievement is important in its own right as a marker of positive adjustment during adolescence but also because academic achievement sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities . The most serious consequence of school failure , particularly dropping out of school , is the high risk of unemployment or underemployment in adulthood that follows . High achievement can set the stage for college or future vocational training and High School Dropouts The status dropout rate refers to the percentage of 16 to 24 who are not enrolled in school and do not have high school credentials ( either a diploma or an equivalency credential such as a General Educational Development GED certificate ) The dropout rate is based on sample surveys of the civilian , institutionalized population , which excludes persons in 21 Content by Dawn is licensed under BY 40 Introduction to Sociology Chapter Socialization Across the Life Course by is licensed under BY 22 Adolescent Development by Jennifer is licensed under Growth and Development

prisons , persons in the military , and other persons not living in households . 23 The dropout rate among high school students has declined from a rate of in 2006 , to in Gap Year How Societies Socialize Young Adults Age transition points require socialization into new roles that can vary widely between societies . For example , in the United Kingdom , when teens finish their secondary schooling ( aka high school in the United States ) they often take a year of before entering college . Frequently , they might take a job , travel , or find other ways to experience another culture . Prince William , the Duke of Cambridge , spent his gap year practicing survival skills in Belize , teaching English in Chile , and working on a dairy farm in the United Kingdom ( Prince of Wales ) His brother , Prince Harry , advocated for AIDS orphans in Africa and worked as a ( a novice ranch hand ) in Australia ( Prince of Wales ) Figure Prince Figure Prince In the United States , this life transition point is socialized quite differently , and taking a year off is generally frowned upon . Instead , youth are encouraged to pick career paths by their , to select a college and a major by their late teens , and to have completed all collegiate schooling or technical training for their career by their early twenties . In other nations , this phase of the life course is tied into conscription , a term that describes compulsory military service . Egypt , Switzerland , Turkey , and Singapore all have this system in place . Youth in these nations ( often only the males ) are expected to undergo a number of months or years of military training and service . 23 Department of Education , National Center for Education Statistics . 2015 ) The Condition 2015 ( Status Dropout Rates . Lifespan Development A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under 24 The Condition of Education by the National Center for Education Statistics is in the public domain 25 is in the public domain Image by is licensed under 27 Introduction to Sociology Chapter Socialization Across the Life Course by is licensed under BY Growth and Development

Adolescents and Independence Career , Work Experience , and Driving Adolescents in the Workforce Many adolescents work either , or during the school year , or may work in lieu of college . Holding a job may offer teenagers extra funds , provide the opportunity to learn new skills , foster ideas about future careers , and perhaps shed light on the true value of money . However , there are numerous concerns about teenagers working , especially during the school year . Several studies have found that working more than 20 hours per week can lead to declines in grades , a general disengagement from school ( Staff , 2010 Lee Staff , 2007 Marsh , 2005 ) an increase in substance abuse ( Longest , 2007 ) engaging in earlier sexual behavior , and pregnancy ( Staff et , 2011 ) Like many employee groups , teens have seen a drop in the number ofjobs . The summer jobs of previous generations have been on a steady decline , according to the United States Department of Labor , Bureau of Labor Statistics ( 2016 ) Figure How many hours and the reasons why this teen works , will influence the effects of The Working Poor A major concern in the United States is the rising number of young people who choose to work rather than continue their education and are growing up or continuing to grow up in poverty . Growing up poor or entering the workforce too soon , can cut off access to the education and services people need to move out of poverty and into stable employment . Research states that education was often a key to stability , and those raised in poverty are the ones least able to find work , perpetuating a cycle . Those who work only part time , may it be teens or whomever , are more likely to be classified as working poor than are those with employment higher levels of education lead to less likelihood of being among the working 28 Image by Brooke on Growth and Development

poor . 29 In 2017 , the working poor included million Americans , down from million in 2011 ( Bureau of Labor Statistics , Teenage Drivers Driving gives teens a sense of freedom and independence from their parents . It can also free up time for parents as they are not shuttling teens to and from school , activities , or work . The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( reports that in 2014 young drivers ( 15 to 20 ) accounted for ( million ) of the total number of drivers ( 214 million ) in the US ( National Center for Statistics and Analysis ( 2016 ) However , almost of all drivers involved in fatal crashes that year were young drivers ( 2016 ) and according to the National Center for Health Statistics ( 2014 ) motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death for 15 to 20 . In all motorized jurisdictions around the world , young , inexperienced drivers have much higher crash rates than older , more experienced drivers ( 2016 , The rate of fatal crashes is higher for young males than for young females , although for both genders the rate was highest for the age group . For young males , the rate for fatal crashes was approximately 46 per drivers , compared to 20 per drivers for young females . The ( 2016 ) reported that of the young drivers who were killed and who had alcohol in their system , 81 had a blood alcohol count past what was considered the legal limit . Fatal crashes involving alcohol use were higher among young men than young women . The also found that teens were less likely to use seat belt restraints if they were driving under the influence of alcohol , and that restraint use decreased as the level of alcohol intoxication increased . completed a study in 2014 that showed that the following are risk factors for accidents for teen drivers Following cars too closely Driving too fast for weather and road conditions Distraction from fellow passengers Distraction from cell phones According to the , 10 of drivers aged 15 to 19 years involved in fatal crashes were reported to be distracted at the time of the crash the highest figure for any age group ( 2016 ) Distraction coupled with inexperience has been found to greatly increase the risk of an accident ( et , 2014 ) The did find that the number of accidents has been on a decline since 2005 . They attribute this to greater driver training , more social awareness to the challenges of driving for 29 Lifespan Development A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under Work in the United States by is licensed under BY 40 A profile of the working poor , 2017 by the is in the public domain Growth and Development

teenagers , and to changes in laws restricting the drinking age . The estimates that the raising ofthe legal drinking age to 21 in all 50 states and the District of Columbia has saved lives since Figure This teen needs to have solid driver training and awareness of driving Wisdom and Whether it is a sense heightened of ability ( we learned a lot about the egocentrism , personal fable , imaginary audience , or the lack of development of prefrontal cortex ) orjust poor decision making , many teens tend to take unnecessary risks . Wisdom , or the capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience , increases between the ages of 14 and 25 , and increases with maturity , life experiences , and cognitive development . Wisdom increases gradually and is not the same as intelligence , and adolescents do not improve substantially on IQ tests since their scores are relative to others in their age group , as everyone matures at approximately the same rate . Adolescents must be monitored because they are more likely to take risks than adults . The behavioral theory proposes that adolescents and adults both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action . However , adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards , particularly social rewards , than do adults . Scaffolding adolescents until they show consistent and appropriate judgment will likely allow for fewer negative Conclusion In this chapter we looked at formal operational stage Moral Development and Morality of Care theories 31 Lifespan Development A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne is licensed under 33 Image by State Farm is licensed under BY 20 33 Boundless Psychology Human Development by is licensed under Growth and Development

Memories in the Information Processing Theory Adolescent transitions and independence In the next chapter we will be examining adolescent social emotional development . Growth and Development