British Columbia in a Global Context Chapter 8 Physical Geography of British Columbia

. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Learning Objectives . Explain the different physical geography . Explain the process that create different geologic and formations . Explain why specific ecosystems are found across the province . Explain basic climatological processes . Identify ways in which physical processes and human activities interact to create disasters . Physical Geography of British Columbia 140

Introduction Beautiful British Columbia The Best Place on Earth Super , Natural British Columbia These official slogans for British Columbia ( have all been inspired by the rugged physical geography that characterizes the province . Physical geography is the study of processes and patterns of the natural environment that creates these characteristic landscapes . Physical geography includes a diverse range of natural phenomena , studying , for example , the atmosphere , hydrosphere , biosphere and geosphere . In this chapter we will introduce several physical geography as they relate to different regions . Overview of Regions in British Columbia has an array of physical characteristics that make up its unique and diverse landscape . Because of the variety of physical and cultural regions , the province is sometimes called a region of regions ( 2005 ) British Columbia is customarily divided into three main regions , the Interior , the Coast and the Lower Mainland . These are broken up by a loose and often overlapping system of regions , often based on river basins but sometimes spanning them . Examples of the former are the , the , and the examples of latter are the country and the . Important of these include the Valley , part of the Lower Mainland , the Canyon ( which overlaps with various regions ) and the Valley , which is the uppermost basin of the River southeast of Prince George . Vancouver Island is considered its own region , as are ( Queen Charlotte Islands ) and the Gulf Islands . 141 Introduction

CANADA 21 , mo mo 20 we ) Figure region of British Columbia The spatial layout of major features of physical geography are illustrated in the map in Figure , which displays some of the major mountain ranges the Coast Mountains , Columbia Mountains , and Rocky Mountains and plateaus such as the and Plateaus . complex landscape includes varied topography and physiography , many , and both terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Important characteristics of marine ecosystems include temperature , salinity , seabed configuration and water depth , whereas terrestrial ecosystems are heavily influenced by climatic zones that occur where specific soils , plant and animal communities , and aquatic systems interact with the geologic and geomorphic processes . Marine and terrestrial ecosystems interact to create a unique and vibrant coastal zone . There are several different that include diverse vegetation reflecting climatic and physiographic differences . These zones include Alpine tundra Boreal white and black spruce spruce Mountain hemlock see resources for more information on zones Introduction 142

fir Montane spruce pine Interior Coastal Interior Coastal western hemlock These zones are heavily influenced by the mountains landscape of , which has some of the highest mountains in North America . These ranges create orthographic effects , rain shadows and dramatic temperature changes over short horizontal differences . Table 811 British Columbia principal mountains ( by range height ) Mountain ( Range ) Height ( Saint Elias Mountains Mountain ( highest point on boundary ) Mount Quincy Adams ( on boundary ) Mount Root ( on boundary ) Coast Mountains Mount Mount Combatant Mountain Rocky Mountains Mount Mount Columbia ( on boundary ) Mount Mountains Mount Sir Mountains Mount Sir Wilfrid Purcell Mountains Mount Mountains Mount While the high mountains , especially the Rocky Mountains and Coast Mountains , are known for their cold temperatures , the coastal environment is warm and moist . This warmth and moisture is largely due to the North Pacific Current that runs west to east across the Pacific ( stemming from the collision of the Current and Current ) Warm ocean air drops most of its moisture as rain and snow as it rises over mountain ranges . This makes home to wettest climates and hence its most productive forests . The richness of natural resources available in are a result of its complex environment and varied . 143 Introduction

Land cover types in . as percent of total land area ( 137 Alpine Wetlands Glaciers Freshwater Human Dominated Grasslands ' Areas mapped as urban . agriculture recreation golf courses ) or mining . Figure Land cover types in as percentage of total land area . This graphic highlights the prevalence and hence importance of forests to landscapes East of the Coast Mountains are the interior plateaus and lower mountains . As the Pacific air flows through the Interior it is influenced by continental air masses . This results in a more continental climate with greater extremes of temperature and precipitation . The region in southern interior east of the Coast Mountains is the driest while the northeast of with its elevated rolling plains ( a landscape feature unique in ) has a cold northern continental climate . Ram Vancouver Figure The rain shadow effect on Vancouver . This graphic shows how the presence of Vancouver Island on the Western side and the Coast Mountains creates a rain shadow effect on the weather in the Greater Vancouver area . There are 47 official in as defined by the government of . An is an area with major physiographic and minor macroclimatic or oceanographic distinguishes from other parts of Canada and North America is the presence of ecological relationships given its great ecological complexity ( 1991 ) In , marine and oceanic environments are part of the regional classification of the province given their important climatic influence . There is another level of ecological complexity that occurs within mountainous regions , that of zonation , given the elevation of the landscape which includes mountains and plains . See res for a detailed map of the , and of . Introduction 144

Figure Physiographic region of British Columbia by Hilda from Michael Church , June Ryder , 2010 . Compendium of forest hydrology and geomorphology in British Columbia . Government of British Columbia . pubs docs Figure Land cover types in as percentage of total land area by Hilda adapted from EN main downloads Figure The rain shadow effect on Vancouver by Hilda . 145 Introduction

Climate Change and Environment in Climate change is a significant and lasting reality in our world today . It refers to change in weather patterns over time , and it includes a variation in the average weather patterns and more extreme weather patterns such as increased precipitation or drought . Natural factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions can have an influence on climate change , but by far the most significant is the impact of human activities ( et , 2004 ) Temperature Over Land Figure indicators of a warming world Think about the richness of natural resources such as clean water and air , timber , game , fish , scenery , natural barriers , metals , minerals and natural gas many of these natural goods and services are impossible to replace . How does climate change impact the province ?

In many parts of , are projected to continue to decrease . Less snow means that there is less in the spring and less runoff in summer . These declining amounts of water affect many industries , such as , agriculture and fisheries . While precipitation trends from normal have increased ( see Figure ) the increase in negative variation in spring indicates risk of variation events rather than simply the risk of less and precipitation over time Where glaciers contribute to the volume of water flow , loss of glacier mass will further increase water shortages . We already have examples of the effect of less snow with the seasonal droughts of 2003 and 2009 , which show the vulnerability of community and irrigation water supplies and point to what we may face in the future . These seasonal droughts , along with high interface forests , contributed to the forest fire of 2003 , and increased temperatures have contributed to the epidemic of the mountain pine beetle . Climate Change and Environment in 146

winter ( December , January , February ) spring ( March , May ) percent percent percent 30 30 so so 29 29 29 29 in 10 10 10 ' an 1943 1959 1955 1979 1999 1998 zone 1949 1959 1959 1979 1999 1999 2999 Departure from normal normal wear trend percent Angus ) percent 39 39 29 20 29 20 in 19 1949 1955 1959 1975 1959 1999 2999 1949 1959 1999 1979 1999 1999 2909 normal normal Figure . Seasonal mean precipitation percentage departure from 1961 to 1990 normal and linear trend for Canada , 1948 to 2009 Each person can make a difference in a small way , but as a province some of the actions needed include Reducing emissions by using cars less , buying food locally , using products where possible , buying appliances , getting energy from renewable sources , and finally turning down heat sources in winter by just two degrees . Ensuring that communities and businesses are more resilient and able to deal with extreme weather events through preparedness . An example in is the creation of communities , which require planners and architects to design new buildings and infrastructure with the changing climate in mind . Figure Ten indicators of a warming world . By US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Climatic Data Center ( wiki File Diagram showing ten indicators of global ) is in the public domain Figure Seasonal mean precipitation percentage departure from 1961 to 1990 normal and linear trend for Canada , 1948 to 2009 . By Environment Canada , 2010 , Climate Trends and Variations Bulletin ( 147 Climate Change and Environment in

Geology The term geology comes from the Greek words ge ( earth ) and logia , meaning the study of and discourse involving the solid Earth , including the rocks of which it is composed , and the processes by which those rocks change . Geology can also refer generally to the study of the solid features of any celestial body ( such as the Moon or Mars ) Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the primary evidence for plate tectonics , the evolutionary history of life and past climates . In British Columbia , geology is important for economic development associated with mineral and hydrocarbon ( oil and natural gas ) exploration and harvest . Geology is valuable to the public for predicting and understanding natural hazards , the remediation of environmental problems , and for providing insights into past climate change . Geology also plays a role in engineering and is a major academic discipline . Formation of the mountains is a dramatic evolving process associated with geology and geomorphology . Geomorphology is the study of the process that creates and transforms the surface of the Earth . Geomorphology seeks to understand history and dynamics , and predicts changes through a combination of field observation , physical experiment and numerical modelling ( The Earth is stratified , meaning that it has several layers . In the very centre lies the solid core , which is surrounded by a liquid core . Next is the mantle , asthenosphere , the lithosphere and finally the crust at the top . Crust ( crust and upper most solid mantle ) Mantle Figure Earth cutaway from core to crust , the lithosphere comprising the crust and mantle ( detail not to scale ) Each of these layers is made up of different mineral composition . Several types of rocks are found throughout the crust . Plate tectonics theory suggests that the Earth lithosphere is made up of seven large plates and several small ones . Rising convection plumes from the asthenosphere can force the plates to move . The plate edges are where most volcanic and earthquake activity take place . These activities move minerals and materials . Below is a map of the geologic era rock found in British Columbia . Geology 148

, GEOLOGIC ERA or ROCK COLUMBIA , Figure . Geologic am of rock in British Columbia Plate tectonics is a significant field of study in since as there are so many fault lines ( see Figure ) Faults are where plates meet , When two plates jam together , the edges often fracture and collapse forming mountain ranges in a process called orogeny . Another significant process to the formation of the rugged terrain found in is isostasy , which is the process of the surface of the Earth loading and unloading For example , the Rocky Mountains are made up of sedimentary rock which erodes relatively quickly . A process is known as isostatic rebound , occurs which is the gradual rising of land elevations as it springs back after thousands of years of being crushed under the weight of continental glaciers . A complex system of fault lines can be found in British Columbia . In Figure 88 , all known and inferred fault lines are present with the major fault lines in bold . These fault lines have been designated as major because of their length and their potential impact on human populations . The five fault lines featured in the figure are the Pinchi Fault in Central , the River Fault , the Columbia River Fault , the Rocky Mountain Fault and the San Juan Fault . 149 Geology

BRITISH COLUMBIA FAULT LINES null Line . Figure British Columbia fault lines Subduction While the San Juan Fault may look small on this map , an earthquake along this fault could have significant View SI Vida I ramifications for the residents of southwestern . The San tI I PI IC A CrIC Juan Fault separates the oceanic Juan de Plate from the I ' heavier and denser North American continental plate through subduction . Subduction occurs when two plates collide and one is denser or heavier than the other , forcing the heavier one downward and under the other . Subduction can cause trenches in the ocean floor , which will warm and may cause the plate to melt , producing magma and flow into volcanic eruptions at the surface resulting in new rocks . These processes also move and transfer minerals and sediment from different layers of the Earth and deposit them in different places . Understanding how and where these pieces of sediment have come from and moved to help geologists unlock the mystery of the formation of surface terrain . For example , the Pinchi Fault is a significant fault system in central that extends 450 kilometres and separates dominating oceanic sedimentary bedrock in the region from the volcanic rocks in the eastern portion of the province ( 2001 ) The resulting terrain consists of a plate pushing up instead of down against the edge of the neighbouring plate , which can cause significant earthquakes . Figure Licensed under Public domain via Commons . Figure Geologic era of rock in British Columbia . Created by Hilda with data provided by Digital Geology 150

Geology Maps Ministry of Geology and Mines ( Mining Pages ) Figure British Columbia fault lines . Created by Hilda with data provided by Digital Geology Maps Ministry of Geology and Mines ( Mining Pages ) 151 Geology Hazards The term natural hazards refers to any natural process that poses a potential threat to human life and property . Natural hazards tend to be repetitive events and are predictable . Some of the most devastating natural hazards include Earthquakes Volcanic eruptions Landslides Hurricanes Heat waves Tsunamis Wildfires Floods Droughts Earthquakes are perhaps the most dangerous of all natural hazards . During the century more than a million lives were lost worldwide due to earthquakes . Each year more than 50 earthquakes occur that are strong enough to be felt in Canada . As discussed in the section on geology , is subject to frequent and violent earthquake activity because of the presence of an active boundary between tectonic plates . Periodic disturbances from hazards such as earthquakes , volcanic eruptions and flooding adversely affect Fertile soil Available water Diverse land and life Aesthetic beauty Fortunately , some hazards can be predicted and much can be learned from past events . With appropriate data collection and analysis , scientists can use statistical models to identify patterns and evaluate the frequency of a particular event . For example , certain soil conditions may lead to the likelihood of landslides . Learning more about natural hazards and communicating this knowledge to the public can encourage hazard mitigation measures that may reduce the damage that could potentially be incurred by disaster . The predictability of hazards allows events to be forecasted and officials to implement warning systems , such as the tsunami warning system that is in place along the Pacific coast . Natural hazards and their effects are closely linked to our environment , and one hazardous event can set off another . For example , an area with weak soils may be at risk of a landslide . A volcanic eruption can cause a landslide , and a subduction earthquake may cause a tsunami . Hazards often influence or disrupt ecosystems for example , landslides in the past have cut off Hell Gate in the River leading to massive declines of the River sockeye population and impacts across the ecosystem . Risk from hazards can be estimated and adverse effects of hazards can be minimized through efforts such as Emergency Management Communities that have a more active versus reactive response to hazards stand a better chances of being prepared when adverse events occur . Emergency preparedness teams and communities need to consider land use planning , construction and the protection of ecosystems . Emergency Management Hazards 152

The Canadian Disaster is an interactive map that allows users to define their search of the disaster database by using a spatially defined area . Canadian Disaster Database 153 Hazards Case Study 1965 Hope Slide A landslide is the general term that describes the movement of rock , soil and other debris down a slope as a result of gravitational pull . Landslides are most likely to occur in mountainous regions but may occur on any slope . There are many factors that can contribute to the likelihood of a landslide , including geological causes such as weak or sensitive materials , morphological causes such as tectonic plate shifting or soil erosion , and human causes such as deforestation , water leakage , imposed vibrations or excavation . One of the most tragic landslides in Canadian history was the Hope Slide , which occurred at on January , 1965 , in the Valley in the Cascade Mountains near Hope , British An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it here . eo ?

Figure Location of Hope Slide Shortly before the landslide , a small avalanche ( different from a landslide in that an avalanche is made up of moving snow , not rock or sediment ) occurred on a stretch of the Highway below Johnson Peak , approximately . This Week in History video can be viewed at ?

Case Study 1965 Hope Slide 154 150 kilometres from Vancouver , which forced four people to stop their vehicles . While they were waiting for the clearing crews , a second landslide occurred . The landslide buried the vehicles and the occupants , and all four people died under 47 million cubic metres of pulverized rock , mud and debris that fell down the mountainside . This mass of debris completely displaced the water and mud in Lake with incredible force , throwing it against the opposite side of the valley , wiping all vegetation and trees down to the bare rock , then splashing it back up the original ( now bare ) slope before settling . Recent research shows that these impacts against the opposite valley sides produced the seismic signatures interpreted as earthquakes . Figure Hope Slide mountain some is clearly visible from the side The landslide was caused by the presence of tectonic structures ( faults and shear zones ) within the southwestern slope of Johnson Ridge The lower parts of the slide scar are underlain by felsite sheets ( which may have failed first ) while the upper parts of the slide scar are underlain by highly jointed greenstone beds . Ongoing weathering and tectonic activity weakened the slide mass to the point where it had reached limiting equilibrium . Although we know the cause of the landslide , it remains unclear what the actual trigger was . A published analysis of seismograph records from January , 1965 , suggested that the Hope Slide probably occurred as two rock avalanches separated by about hours Changes in groundwater condition are often a trigger for landslides , though are not thought to have played a role in the Hope Slide as the slide occurred during a protracted period of temperatures in the winter . Weather records for the 25 days prior to the slide indicate that the temperature was much colder than normal , with the average daily temperature not exceeding , and on most days it was below ( 2006 ) Some have suggested that freezing of seepage exit points may have caused an increase in water pressure at the toe of the slide . It is also suggested that progressive deformation of the slopes of the southwest of Johnson Peak caused the stability of the slope to deteriorate . We can conclude that the Hope Slide was the catastrophic result of very long term mountain slope deformation . Since the landslide , the highway has been rerouted around and over the base of the slides debris field 55 metres above 155 Case Study 1965 Hope Slide

the original ground level on the other side of valley . As a result of the slide , the mountainside remains bare rock , without significant growth of trees or other large vegetation . Visitors to the region can view the scar of the landslide along Highway at a viewpoint . Figure Hope Slide location ( lan , 7296 ) by ( licensed under BY SA ( licenses ! Figure Hope Slide mountain scare is clearly visible from the side . Hope Slide ( wiki Hope Slide ) by ( wiki User ) is in the Public Domain . Case Study 1965 Hope Slide 156

Case Study 1964 Port Tsunami On the afternoon of Good Friday . March 27 , 1964 , the strongest earthquake recorded in North America , and the second strongest ever recorded , occurred in Alaska . The Great Alaskan Earthquake was a magnitude subduction zone ( earthquake located at a depth of approximately 25 kilometres . It lasted four minutes and 38 seconds . 131 people died in the earthquake and ensuing tsunami ( 2012 ) The epicentre of the earthquake was 125 kilometres east of Anchorage , Alaska , where many inadequately engineered houses , buildings and infrastructure were damaged or destroyed . Three hundred kilometers southwest , some areas near Kodiak were permanently raised by metres . Southeast of Anchorage . areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near and Portage dropped as much as metres . A massive underwater slide at Port in Prince William Sound created an metre tsunami that destroyed the village of , killing 23 of the 68 people who lived there . tsunamis severely affected , Kodiak and other Alaskan communities , as well as people and property in Oregon , California and British Columbia . Figure Calculated travel time map for the tectonic tsunami produced by the 1964 earthquake in Alaska . Map does not show the height or strength of the waves , only the calculated travel times . Number represents time in hours for the wave to reach the destination . Two types of tsunami were produced as a result of the earthquake a tectonic tsunami caused by the movement of the tectonic plates . and subaerial landslide ( or submarine ) tsunami caused by underwater landslides . About 20 of these smaller tsunamis were responsible for the majority of the tsunami damage in over 20 countries , including Canada , Peru , New Zealand . New Guinea and Japan . The largest recorded wave was at Bay , Alaska . at height of about 67 metres . Three hours after the quake , a metre tsunami wave reached Prince Rupert . and did little damage . Then . around 157 Case Study 1964 Port Tsunami

midnight , the first of two waves began travelling up the 40 kilometre Inlet toward the towns of and Port . The narrow inlet amplified the size and intensity of the wave , and when it struck the two towns it had a height of metres . One hour later , a second , larger wave of metres hit . It was the second wave that caused most of the damage , lifting houses off their foundations and sweeping log booms on shore . The second wave was followed by four more waves ranging in height from metres and metres and at roughly 90 minute intervals . In total , the tsunami washed away away 55 homes and damaged 375 others . It caused million in damage in Port and . The mill at Port , which employed people , was temporarily closed . Incredibly , there were no fatalities in either town . The tsunami lead directly to the amalgamation of and Port into a single town in 1966 . Animation of Tsunami Generated by the Earthquake If you are reading this in print , you can see the animation at watch ?

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it here eo ?

Figure Calculated Travel Time Map for 1964 Alaska Tsunami ( wiki File Calculated Travel Time Map for 1964 Alaska ) by used under BY SA 30 ( licenses ) Case Study 1964 Port Tsunami I 158 Case Study 2003 Mountain Park Fire On August 16 , 2003 , a wildfire was started near Rattlesnake Island in Mountain Provincial Park in British Columbia . The inferno began with a lightning strike and was fuelled by a constant wind and one of the driest summers in a decade . If you are reading this in print , you can view the following video at watch ?

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it online here eo ra ?

The fire grew northward and eastward , initially threatening a small number of lakeshore homes , but quickly became an interface zone fire as it approached the city of . An interface zone is an area where urban development occurs on or near lands that have a significant fire risk . Figure Satellite image in natural colours of the fire location and the surrounding area . In white is the smoke from the fire , in red inside the white area are fire hotspots of intense heat . The fire eventually grew to cover over 250 square kilometres and forced the evacuation of residents . The 159 Case Study 2003 Mountain Park Fire

firestorm challenged personnel from over 60 fire departments across over forestry fire fighters , contractors and loggers as well as members of the Canadian armed forces . Tourism and the local wine industry were heavily impacted by the fire . August is the peak tourist season in the region and tourism numbers are estimated to have declined 30 to 50 below normal during the period of the fire . A popular tourist attraction for extreme mountain biking , the Crawford area trails were closed indefinitely . The Crags , a area within the fire zone was compromised by the heat of the fires , and six marine campgrounds accessible only by boat on Lake , were destroyed . The Estate Winery , originally planted in 1928 , was destroyed along with the the owners home and the entire 2003 crop . Although was the only winery damaged by fire , many others in the region also lost their crop that year due to smoke taint . In the end , 239 buildings were destroyed . The fire also destroyed 12 historic wooden railway and damaged two other steel in the Myra Canyon . These were part of the Myra Canyon Section of the Kettle Valley Railway , in use from 1914 to 1978 , and were considered a historic engineering feat . The section was declared a national historic site of Canada in 2002 . Figure Satellite image in natural colours of the fire location and the surrounding area . 2003 Mountain Park Fire ( wiki 2003 Mountain Park Fire ) by Space Systems , and ASTER Science Team ( is in the Public Domain . Case Study 2003 Mountain Park Fire 160

Summary Physical geography is the study of the processes and patterns of the natural environment . This chapter provided an overview of the array of process that create British Columbia physical characteristics and give the province its unique landscape . complex landscape includes 47 official as defined by the government of areas with physiographic , microclimatic and oceanographic variation . Marine and terrestrial ecosystems interact to create a unique and vibrant coastal zone . Climate change refers to change in weather patterns over time . Climate change impacts irreplaceable natural resources water and air , game , fish , scenery , flood control natural barriers , metals , minerals and natural gas . The province of British Columbia must take some actions to further protect the environment of the region . Each person can make a difference if acting as a collective . Possible actions include Reducing emissions by reducing car usage , buying food locally , using products where possible , buying energy efficient appliances , getting energy from renewable sources and turning down heat sources in winter by just two degrees . Enhancing preparedness procedures , as has been done with the creation of communities . Geology refers to the study of the solid features of any celestial body ( such as the Moon or Mars ) Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the primary evidence for plate tectonics , the evolutionary history of life and past climates . Geology is vital in as economic development is associated with mineral and hydrocarbon ( oil and natural gas ) exploration and harvest . Geomorphology is the study of the process that creates and transforms the surface of the Earth . Geomorphology seeks to understand history and dynamics , and predict future changes through a combination of field observation , physical experiment and numerical modelling ( Plate tectonics theory suggests that the lithosphere is made up of seven large plates and several small ones . The plate edges are where most volcanic and earthquake activity take place . Natural hazards are a direct result of the physical geography of . has a complex system of fault lines . The five fault lines featured in the chapter are the Pinchi Fault in Central , the River Fault , the Columbia River Fault , the Rocky Mountain Fault and the San Juan Fault . Some of the most devastating events that have occurred because of natural hazards include the forest fire , the Hope Slide and the Port tsunami . 161 Summary

Key Terms Key Terms zones Alpine Tundra Boreal White and Black Spruce Spruce Mountain Hemlock Fir Montane Spruce Pine Interior Coastal Interior Coastal Western Hemlock Climate change A significant and lasting change in weather patterns over time . This includes a variation in the average weather patterns , and more extreme weather patterns such as increased precipitation or drought . Natural factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions can climate change , but by far the most significant is the impact of human activities . Felsite sheet A very fine grained volcanic rock that may or may not contain larger crystals . Felsite is a field term for a rock that typically requires petrographic examination or chemical analysis for more precise definition . Geology The study of and discourse involving the solid Earth , including the rocks of which it is composed , and the processes by which they change . Geology can also refer generally to the study of the solid features of any celestial body ( such as the Moon or Mars ) Geomorphology The study of the process that creates and transforms the surface of the Earth . Geomorphology seeks to understand history and dynamics . and predict future changes through a combination of field observation . physical . and numerical modelling ( Isostasy The process of the surface of the Earth loading and unloading . For example , the Rocky Mountains are made up of sedimentary rock which erodes relatively quickly . Isostatic rebound The term used to describe the process of very heavy mountains erode from the top so that they actually float up and grow . Landslide The general term used to describe the movement of rock , soil and other debris down a slope as a result of gravitational pull . Key Terms 162

163 Key Terms Suggested Activities Su i tics Activity I Calculate how much time it approximately took for the tectonic tsunami from 1964 Alaska earthquake to reach the coast of . Activity Do some research online and your own tsunami or earthquake action plan . What would you do to prepare yourself for an earthquake or tsunami ?

What resources do the residents of have to protect against future tsunamis ?

What actions should be taken when a tsunami warning is announced ?

Activity Using the following website from University of British Columbia Department of Forestry , explain what is happening the the of . Activity Use the following website to see how the climate has changed in your local area in on this day since 1840 at intervals and then plot the data on a graph using excel Activity Use your smartphone or a handheld to engage in . Locate a near you . Observe the physical environment in the process . Suggested Activities 164

Activity Make a real time earthquake map The United States Geological Society ( has made its earthquake information available via an ( see research methods section ) thus making it easy to integrate this information with an online map . As a result there are several online maps available on the web . Here are a few links earth earthquakes map Activity Here are directions on how to make your own earthquake map using Google Maps . There are several other tutorials available online . Find one that matches your technological skill level . maps tutorials visualizing earthquakes Link to data earthquakes 165 Suggested Activities

References and Resources References 2003 Mountain Park Fire , 2014 from Wikipedia ?

Mountain Park Fire British Columbia Coast Region Species and Ecosystems of Conservation Concern Document , URL ( accessed ) 1999 . Geology of British Columbia A Journey Through Time . Publishers Incorporated . Centre for Forest Conservation Genetics , About BEC and units Document . URL ( accessed ) and Warren , 2004 . Defining and Experiencing Dangerous Climate Change . Climate Change , 64 ( Dennis , Ecology Ecosystems Branch Environment Province of British Columbia Document . URL ( accessed ) Digital Geology Maps Document , URL Mining Pages ( accessed ) Environment , of , Climate Change Impacts Reports . Data Document . URL gov ?

accessed ) Government of Canada , 2005 . Principal heights by range or region Document . URL ( accessed ) Hope Slide , 2014 from Wikipedia ( wiki Ho Slide ) and used under a license . after the fire Document , The Globe and Mail . URL ( accessed ) 2005 . Roadside geology of southern British Columbia . Mountain Press Pub . Co , Mont . and , 1991 Ecosystems of British Columbia . Special Report Series Ministry of Forests , Victoria , British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines , Landslide Glossary Document . URL LANDSLIDES Pages ( accessed ) 2011 . Geography of British Columbia people and landscapes in transition , ed . ed . Press , Vancouver . A . 2001 The glacial transport and physical of mercury and gold in till implications for mineral exploration with examples from central British Columbia Canada . 300 Book title Drift Exploration in References and Resources 166

Terrain edited . GEM Hall Cook Geological Society Special Publication No . Geology of Southern British Columbia Matthews , Monger Remembering the 1964 Port tsunami , Global News news 1227757 Special Report on Tidal Wave Disaster em hazard Tsunami Report Steven , Hope Slide . 2012 . Historic Earthquakes Document . URL ( accessed ) Resources A useful resource for instructors to see how their students can get involved education which provides species conservation ranking , field identification tips , ecology and links to management requirements and resources Explore Species and Ecosystems Information about how to prepare for disasters and facts about these disasters Provincial Emergency Management Agency ( em 167 References and Resources

Tools for Spatial Data Collection and Utilization Geographic Information Geographic information is the collection of information about places and events that occur on the Earth surface . Geographic information science ( is the study of organizations and tools associated with the process of collecting and disseminating geographic information . research includes topics that relate to cartography , remote sensing , photogrammetry , web mapping and spatial data organization . Digital data management of spatial information is also associated with . As we have seen throughout this book , there are a wide range of ways in which can help solve problems . In this section , a range of tools associated with the collection and distribution of spatial data are presented as well as recommendations for further reading . Geographic Information Systems ( GIS ) Geographic information systems ( GIS ) are systems for input , storage , manipulation , summarizing , editing , querying and visualizing geographic information . Read more in , Maguire , 2005 ) Surveying is the science of accurate measurement of natural and features on the Earth . Data collected by surveyors are then used to create highly precise maps . Surveyors calculate the precise position of points , distances and angles through geometry . Remote Sensing Remote sensing is the use of satellites orbiting the Earth to capture information of the surface and atmosphere . Satellites vary in spatial and spectral resolution . These signals are then transmitted to receiving stations on Earth where they can be transformed and distributed as digital images to be analyzed . Through the use of remote sensing , applying specific calculations to images can help spatial information analyst identify and classify features on a landscape such as changes in and identifying the location of without physically setting foot in that region . Remote sensing can be used to sense changes in ground cover , locate the presence of surficial minerals and identify the location . Modeling the Distribution of Sponges and Sponge Grounds in the Northwest Atlantic . article info Tools for Spatial Data Collection and Utilization 168

of different types of vegetation . Both the Government of British and the Government of Canada ?

extensively utilize remote sensing . Maps Maps are mathematical representations of Earth and the Earth surface . They can be used for data storage , spatial exploratory functions and as an analytical tool . Maps are a medium for visual communication of information relationships and depict human perception of the world . They can be used as spatial tools . For further study on maps , try the map reading skills crash course at ( Cartography Cartography is the design , construction and evaluation of maps . When designed well , maps can be powerful communication tools . The practice of cartography may require the knowledge of graphic design , computer science , mathematics , statistics , psychology and , most certainly , geography . The purpose of a map is to reduce the complexity of the real world to communicate a specific idea . A map should be quickly and easily interpreted by the viewer . All maps must include a legend to inform the user what is being represented , a north arrow or compass to orient the user and a scale bar to to reveal the dimensions being represented on the map . Cartographic principles are in place to guide cartographers . Read more in , Kessler , Howard , 2009 . is the display of information to be explored in an effort to facilitate the process of hypothesis formation and knowledge construction ( Dodge , Turner , 2008 Dykes , 2005 , 2005 , 2001 ) Data exploration is an individual activity in which unknown spatial patterns are revealed in an interactive environment ( Kessler , Howard , 2009 ) A major difference between static cartography and is interaction , and with it is possible that some information may go unnoticed without that interaction . make it possible to provide more than one view ( through multimedia , or another map , or tables or graphics ) allow users to interact with data drawing their own conclusions and making them feel like they have made a new discovery . There are a wide of software packages available to create maps and . A few software packages currently available and widely used are , a free and open source software ( meaning that it is free of charge and the code is made publicly available to be manipulated and improved . Additional tools and are constantly being created . can be . Examples of how the government of British Columbia uses remote sensing can be found at ( Examples of how the government of Canada uses remote sensing can be found at forests 13429 169 Tools for Spatial Data Collection and Utilization

run on Mac or . a proprietary software and industry standard Increasingly , anyone with Internet access can utilize simple GIS capabilities through online mapping platforms such as a digital earth . Digital globes or web maps are interactive digital representations of the Earth surface . Applications associated with Web maps include information systems used for online travel and hotel bookings , finding restaurants and getting directions to a desired location . Application programming interface ( make it possible to harness information from online resources such as social media outlets and other data repositories that can then be collected and integrated with a map . Digital Globes Digital globes are representations of the Earth in format . The aim of a globe is to reduce distortion and reveal spatial relationships between places . Digital globes provide many advantages . The user is able to scale up or down with ease since they are highly interactive . Digital globes are easy to transport since they are accessible on mobile and desktop computers , files can be shared easily and each user can choose a topic of interest to overlay on the globe . As well , they are dynamic and can be outfitted with information . Interacting with digital globes is fun because the user can pan and zoom anywhere in the world on the fly . Popular digital globes that also have an associated to assist in the creation of include Google Earth Google Maps proprietary data sources all data have been contributed by citizens uploading and digitizing spatial data Yahoo Maps MapQuest Smartphones are pervasive among the general public and can be used to collect all sorts of spatial data . Most smartphones have sensors that are able to document spatial data . Two ways in which you have likely interacted with technology and geographic information science with a smartphone are through volunteered geographic information and services . Volunteered Geographic Information ( geographic information ( is information collected by users roving the surface of the Earth . is the contribution of content regarding local activities in various geographic locations around the world that may traditionally go unnoticed by the rest of the worlds media . People now have the ability to share qualitative or quantitative information with an audience about their experience in a specific place in the world . is typically collected and shared through the use of smartphones . Examples of include checking into a location using Facebook or Foursquare , a photo and sharing a restaurant review on Yelp . When you use a new application you should be asked Does this app have permission to use your locational information ?

If you answered yes for the camera application on your phone , coordinates will be applied to the metadata associated with the image file so you can then map your photo at a later time , or an application associated with your phone will map your photos for you . This could be considered . Tools for Spatial Data Collection and Utilization 170

Services ( services ( are services that offer information about where a device user is situated ( Cartwright , Peterson , 2007 Jiang Yao , 2007 ) Examples include popular applications such as Google Maps . and and the collection of other types of spatial data are not possible without sensors for collecting spatial data . With the increased computing capabilities and decrease in cost for hardware , collecting spatial data is becoming more and more accessible and feasible for the public . There are several options for collecting your own local spatial data and it can be done with relatively resources . Global Positioning System ( A global positioning system ( is a satellite network that communicates with receivers accessed by mobile users . The receiver needs to connect with four or more satellites orbiting the Earth , as reference to calculate the precise location of the user within a few metres satellites were launched by the United States military but are also used for civilian use . receivers are widely used in cars and smartphones to provide directions to specific locations . Individual can be purchased and installed on almost anything . Physical and human alike find them valuable for documenting information about place Data formats collected by the can be exported from many different file formats to be used in a wide variety of software platforms . For collecting your own aerial photos you can mount cameras and sensors to drones or unmanned aerial vehicle ( UAV ) ages , or by balloon mapping . Figure . Drone and Moon by Don ( 69214385 ) licensed under BY ( licenses ) 171 Tools for Spatial Data Collection and Utilization

All Ol The interactive aerial map below shows an example of balloon mapping . If you are reading this in print , you can view the map at ?

creek An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view it here eo ?

If you are interested in trying out balloon or kite mapping yourself , youll find some resources at wiki . Existing Spatial Data Sources Several government and other organizations often make spatial data publicly available in a variety of formats that are relatively easy for the general public to use through the creation of . are web pages that take data from two different sources or sets and put them together . Just two examples of include taking data from Vancouver open data and overlaying them on a Google maps . Vancouver Open Data in file formats compatible with the Web , Google Maps and Google Earth , and and several other file formats compatible with accessible software systems . government British Columbia Open Data geographic ?

Canada wide data offered by the Canadian government in file formats compatible with and . eo di . There are far more available online , and they will change rapidly . There is increasing expectation that data should be made publicly available . Ethical Considerations When creating maps and interacting with spatial data , ethical considerations are required . It is important to consider what is and is not being represented on a map , and who and who is not being represented in a data set . information is inherently sensitive because it is tied to specific locations and people . When building applications that collect or share personal information , it is important to consider whether the people who are being represented know that their information is being used and how it is being used . Privacy of information laws must be considered . To read more about the ethical implications of mapping , see , 2010 . Tools for Spatial Data Collection and Utilization 172

References , 2010 , Mapping A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS , First , Dodge , Turner , 2008 , Geographic visualization concepts , tools and applications , Wiley , England , Dykes , 2005 , Exploring , Amsterdam . Elwood , A . 2013 , New spatial media , new knowledge politics , Transactions of the Institute of British , vol . 38 , no . Cartwright , Peterson , 2007 , Location based services and , Springer , Berlin . Jiang , Yao , 2007 , Location based services and GIS in perspective in Location based services and , Cartwright . Peterson , Springer , Berlin , 27 . 2005 , and , Cartography and Geographic Information Science , vol . 32 , no . A . Wilson , 2013 , Theorizing the , Maguire , 2005 , Geographic Information Systems and Science , John Wiley and Sons , England . 2001 , Research challenges in , Cartography and Geographic Information Science , vol . 28 , no . Kessler , Howard , 2009 , Thematic cartography and geographic visualization , Hall , Upper Saddle River , Suggested readings Cartography . 2005 . US . Coast and Geodetic Survey . University Press of the Pacific . Elements of Cartography . 1995 . Robinson . Morrison . Wiley . Making Maps , Second Edition A Visual Guide to Map Design for GIS . 2011 . and Wood . The Press . Thematic Cartography and . 2008 . Kessler . and Howard . Prentice Hall . 173 Tools for Spatial Data Collection and Utilization