British Columbia in a Global Context Chapter 6 Forestry in British Columbia

. FORESTRY IN BRITISH COLUMBIA Learning Objectives . Identify common native British Columbia tree species . Evaluate the significance of forests to British Columbia economic growth and regional identity . Explain threats to British Columbia forests . 109 . Forestry in British Columbia

Introduction British Columbia forests are legendary . forests have been the economic , cultural and political lifeblood of the province from the intimate relationships of First Nations with the cedar and sacred trees like the Golden Spruce , to the harrowing tales of lumberjacks among the towering evergreens of the coast , to the role of forests in feeding the military during war , and to the cycles of lumber towns like . Despite the heavy use of this resource , only 60 of the province is forested , which represents approximately 55 million of the provinces 95 million hectares . Three percent of areas that were formerly forests have been permanently converted to other land uses , such as towns , urban areas or agriculture . The forest is a public resource as about 95 percent of the forested area is provincially owned . Forestry is a vital part of the provinces economy . Currently , one in five jobs in is related to forestry . Employment in the industry is growing with direct and indirect employment sitting just below in 2012 . Although the forest sector has experienced some declines , with an average annual growth rate of it is forecast to be one of three sectors to experience the fastest growth from 2007 to 2017 . In 2004 , lumber production peaked at 85 million cubic metres of lumber produced at , but by 2009 there was a decline to about 45 million cubic metre . The socioeconomic implication of this downfall was harmful to large parts of the economy and to several communities that were devastated by the closing of . Since then , the industry has slightly recovered and future prediction estimates a continued slow recovery . Despite the 2009 slowdown of the lumber industry , global exports in wood products totalled , and pulp and paper exports were at , constituting 33 constituting 33 percent of overall commodity exports ( Stats , 2014 ) The province has adopted the western red cedar as its official tree , reflecting its importance to the indigenous communities and to the economic growth of the province . However , to best understand the background of forestry in it is important to overview some of the many important native tree species . The Tree Book outlines 40 different native tree species that can be divided into two broad categories deciduous trees and coniferous trees . Deciduous Trees ( Hardwood ) Deciduous means falling off at maturity and entails the natural process of plant part that is no longer needed . It is used to describe trees and shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally ( commonly during autumn ) and to plants that lose their petals after flowering or fruit when ripe . Deciduous trees in British Columbia usually are rapid growers that come immediately after the destruction of the forest by natural causes such as fire , infestation or natural decay . The most common species of deciduous trees in British Columbia are elder , maple and birch . The Tree Book ( free download ) documents Introduction 110

Maple ( bottom ) Birch Coniferous trees ( Softwood ) Coniferous trees make up the majority of broad tree species in British Columbia and are the most commonly harvested for the lumber and pulp industry . The coniferous trees that cover most of the provinces landscape are pine , spruce , fir , cedar and hemlock . These trees tend to grow slowly between the deciduous trees . Eventually they grow to take the majority of the sunlight and cause the death of the previously predominant deciduous trees . This process results in what is known as an forest . An forest is characterized by limited light penetration reaching the ground surface and low height shrubs around the tree trunk base . The Douglas fir , western red cedar and several other species have played important roles in industry production . Different tree species have different end uses and benefit various markets . The cedar , for example , is straight grain , light and water resistant , making it good for roofing and siding . 111 Introduction

Fig Softwood trees in ( top left ) top centre ) Spruce ( top right ) Fir ( bottom left ) Cedar ( bottom right ) Western Hemlock Reforestation in Lumber is a renewable yet resource . Reforestation is a thus a key aspect of sustainable forest management . In British Columbia , reforestation is strictly regulated so that new forests mirror the diversity of natural forests and support the sustainable harvest of commercially valuable timber . About 20 of harvested areas are naturally the balance is by planting . Seeds used in reforestation programs come from two sources seed orchards and wild stands . Seed orchards produce select seeds from trees with proven growth , timber and qualities . The province chief forester has established standards to regulate the registration , storage , selection and transfer of tree seed . These standards are aimed at maintaining and enhancing the health and productivity of future forests . Reforestation is helping to maintain a mix of tree species in the province , which in turn helps maintain ecosystem processes and diverse habitats . uses a mix of over 20 different native tree species in its reforestation programs . On average , more than 200 million tree seedlings are planted each year on public forest land in , and since reforestation programs began in the , more than six billion trees have been planted . The province has programs in place to conserve the genetic resources of native tree species . These include conserving natural tree populations in parks , protected areas , provincial forests and gene archives . Programs such as Forests for Tomorrow reforest the areas hardest hit by catastrophic wildfires and the mountain pine beetle epidemic . The goal of these programs and the reforestation requirements is to ensure that forests contain genetic diversity , an important element in maintaining ecosystem resilience . Forests for Tomorrow projects that by 2013 approximately 60 million trees will be planted . Introduction 112

Annual Allowable Cuts in The current annual allowable cut ( is 75 million cubic metres , including the temporary increases totalling about million cubic metres that are in place for salvaging timber attacked by mountain pine beetle in the interior of the province . Projections indicate that if current management approaches were to continue and there were no changes in the land base or information used in the analyses , this level could be maintained for 30 years . Timber supply would then be expected to decline over a decade to 60 to 65 million cubic metres , staying at this level for roughly 50 years before returning to approximately the current . Such a decline would heavily impact the economy and is politically contested by environmental activists . Both timber and values are considered in calculating . For example , the following factors are considered buffer zones losses Logging losses Operational constraints Environment and wildlife Figure . Hardwood trees in is comprised of Elder trees child among elders ( by ( is under BY ( licenses ) Maple tree . Bursting Orange Maple ( by ( is under BY SA ( licenses ) Birch trees . Birch Trees up in the mountains ( by Ryan ( saab ) is under BY SA ( licenses ) Figure Softwood tress of is comprised of 28263 from wiki File under BY ( licenses ) Spruce tree . spruce ( eb ) by Tatters ( is under BY SA ( licenses ) Fir tree . Fir tree at Milton ( photo 1358994 ) by Simon ( is used under BY SA ( licenses ) Cedar tree . Field with cedar tree , other trees beyond ( photo 2924351 ) by Trevor ( profile 39198 ) is used under BY SA ( licenses ) Western hemlock by ( wiki File 27 ) used under ( licenses ) 113 Introduction

History of Commercial Logging Commercial logging in British Columbia dates back to the when timber was predominantly used for masts on ships . By the , export production increased with the establishment of many saw mills on the southern end of Vancouver Island and the Inlet . The coastal forests of the region offered enormous trees , high wood per hectare as a result and proximity to the ocean for transportation . The gold rush in the region began to open the area up with the building of roads . As the population increased in this area it also created the demand for timber , heating , cooking , housing and commercial establishments . Just as rapidly as the gold rush boomed it busted , and many of the settlements were abandoned and demand for resources decreased rapidly . However , new discoveries of silver , coal and other minerals to mine renewed demand for timber in the Interior . It was around this time ( 1886 ) that the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed which led to a stable export market to the Prairies and central Canada for the Interior timber mills , specifically those in , and . The Kettle Valley railway line , Grand Trunk Pacific and the Pacific Great Eastern continued to open up and increased further the demand for Interior mills . Communities were no longer solely relying on the rivers and lakes for transportation . Prior to the expansion of the railways , transportation had been one of the major barriers to the interior timber harvest . The introduction of the combustion engine ended the linear pattern of logging . Bulldozers and trucks could get to almost any logging site , and by ( trucks became the main source of transportation , which continues to be the case today . Further advances in technology included the axe and the Swede saw , which later became the chainsaw . Figure Men felling a tree with a motorized saw , 1942 The spar tree and steam donkey , or donkey engine ( the common nickname for a winch , or logging engine ) became a mechanical spar pole that could be brought to any site . The mechanical spar pole used hydraulics to raise the pole and a combustion engine to run the winch . The technology was further enhanced with the feller buncher , a machine with metal tracks that cuts limbs and stacks logs all at once . History of Commercial Logging 114

Figure Feller buncher The depletion of the accessible forests led loggers further into the forests and up the slopes of the mountains . New methods for log booms were necessary as old rafts were not suitable for the rougher seas . The Davis raft was useful for preventing breakup but was replaced by a much better barge system ( and ) which proved to be faster and decreased log loss . In remote areas , helicopter and balloon logging began , although this was very expensive . Mills switched from to entities , and all aspects of milling began to be automated logs , saw milling , grading and green chain ( an assembly line of timber ) By the hydraulic barkers and new band saws with laser directional beams were introduced as well as an automated green chain . Figure Men felling a tree with a motorized saw ( by Matthews , James , Major ( Public Domain ) Figure Feller buncher ( wiki File ) Public Domain ) 115 History of Commercial Logging

Pulp and Paper Mills While lumber was and is a vital part of the forestry industry , pulp and paper mills increased in importance in the century due to global demand . By the both Powell River and Ocean Falls were important producers of pulp . By 1951 , Prince Rupert , Duncan Bay , Port , and Victoria added pulp and paper mills and the demand increased throughout the . Multinational corporations were encouraged to invest in the forestry industry , and in the 19605 ( an American company ) developed a pulp mill in , which produced more than just pulp . owned that allowed them to have the rights to the raw materials and much more control over the end uses . Having both and pulp mills made economic sense because the of the could be used . In the and , major investments were being made in production in Interior , as both the road and railway systems had increased to give more access to forest resources . The saw production increase but consolidation and integration meant fewer mills . New mills were more efficient , so older mills on the coast were pressured to compete more effectively with Interior investments . By the and early , increased economic pressure from a globalized market resulted in Prince Rupert , Powell River , Port Alice and Port mills being restructured , and the Gold River Mill closed . Pulp and Paper Mills 116

Forest Tree The provincial government manages the forestry industry and controls about 95 of the timber harvesting lands . Therefore , determining and tax rates is important . Types of tenure , tree species , location , transportation and end use are all part of the basis for provincial taxes levied on the forestry industry . The term timber tenure system refers to the collection of legislation , regulations , contractual agreements , permits and government policies that define and constrain a person right to harvest the province timber . Timber tenure is commonly used to describe the agreement between a company and the government that grants rights to harvest a specified volume of timber . Tenure is the way in which rights are held tenure is not a right itself . A wide variety of timber are in place , reflecting the diverse objectives for forest use that have been pursued since the early . Forest tenure is complicated in due to environmental concerns ( sustainable harvesting ) and Aboriginal claims . In 1945 , the Sloan Commission established new forms of tenure which resulted in amendments to Forest Act in 1947 and included changes to two forms of tenure . Tree farm licenses , which are tenure that grants private forest companies renewable licenses , changed from 21 years to 25 years . Public sustainable yield units ( became volume based , changing the way that stumpage rates are charged . Tree farm licenses give a company the right and responsibility for building roads , planning and in an area . They allow a large amount of private control over the land . By 2001 there were 34 tree farm licenses in . In the past , Crown grants also allowed provincial forests to be controlled by private groups . Such grants gave cutting rights to private railway companies , which created an incentive to increase construction . and Railway Charter grants resulted in of the Vancouver Island forests becoming private property . The actual amount of land in leased lands , timber leases or Crown grants make up of the land total of . The grants accounted for most of the wood harvested until 19405 and still make up a substantial amount of today production . These private lands are some of the most productive in . Public sustained yield units ( are a tenure . The Ministry of Forests , Lands and Natural Resource Operations determines the volume of wood to be harvested by private companies using harvest contracts and licenses . The ministry is also responsible for building roads and for . In the and , this tenure was mostly found in the Interior as fewer larger companies were in business in that region . The Forest Act of 1947 introduced several changes to Ensure industrial access to guaranteed timber supplies Stimulate capital investment in processing plants and therefore assure economic stability and development Bring forests under sustained yield management ( as cited by , 2011 ) This act demonstrated a major shift in thinking forests were not inexhaustible , they needed to be replanted and better managed . The two forms of tenure led to a debate over who was the better manager the ministry with the or the companies with the tree farm licenses . The Forest Act was amended again in 1978 . The changes included the following All lands under old timber licenses ( all forms of tenure except the Crown grants ) would revert back to the Crown once they were harvested . 117 Forest Tree

Provincial forests were divided up into 36 management regions called timber supply areas ( Licenses and harvest contracts under the were replaced with other licenses . Forest licenses became the most common form of tenure . With a forest license , the holder has the right to harvest a stated volume per year . The forest license has the same system of the but with renewable terms . Timber license sales also replaced , small business forest enterprise programs , wood lot licenses and several pulpwood agreements . Tree forest licenses and farm licenses accounted for 90 of annual allowable harvest in 1993 . The annual allowable cut is the rate of harvest , or volume of wood , allowed for each tenure type in each timber supply area . The timber production increase from the ( largely from the Interior ) provoked new concerns about tenure privatization . Between 1981 and 1986 , the recession brought on big changes to the industry and led to a decision to reduce the bureaucracy . In 1982 , the Ministry of Forests proposed a policy change that would allow forest licenses and timber sale licenses of short duration ( but under the governments control ) to be converted to tree farm licenses . By 1988 , legislation was put in place to allow this to become possible . The public viewed this as a move to privatization because of the allowance for renewable terms , and regarded the change as a lack of management of the forest . In response , the government scrapped the policy before it was implemented . Tenure proposals were put in place to increase the number of tree farm licenses . Round table discussions were held in the but they did not change much in the tenure system . There was a major increase in the number and size of public parks and protected areas , which meant that less land was available to be logged . By the , protected areas on the coasts doubled . Different types of tenure have led to questions such as the following What about the dominance of large corporations ?

How can materials be obtained ?

What about privatization ?

Should trees be viewed as fibre only ?

What else do trees provide ?

The provincial government benefits from the revenues derived from the forest industry . Most of the revenue comes from taxes , both direct and indirect . The main direct tax is Stumpage fees on logs , which vary according to tree species , size , quality and end use . Stumpage is the price charged by a land owner to companies or operators for the right to harvest timber on that land . It used to be calculated on a per stump basis ( hence the name ) but is now usually charged by tons , board feet or by cubic metres . Stumpage fees account for market value of wood , physical conditions of environment difficulty in obtaining the timber and volume per hectare , as well as types of tenure . There are also costs to the province associated with the forestry industry . For example Road building and engineering Forest fire management research , programs to minimize risk and fighting fires Pest and disease management research , programs to minimize risk and programs to fight pests and disease Reforestation Forest Tree 118

Case Study Mountain Pine Beetle The mountain pine beetle ( is a species of bark beetle native to the forests of western North America . It has a hard black exoskeleton and measures approximately five millimetres in length , about the size of a grain of rice . millimeters Figure The Mountain Pine Beetle . The current outbreak of mountain pine beetle in British Columbia began in the early and is considered to be the largest ever recorded , affecting over million hectares , or an area five times the size of Vancouver Island . The mountain pine beetle infestation has had a devastating effect on the forest of British Columbia and has killed about 50 of the total volume of commercial lodge pole pine in the province . 119 Case Study Mountain Pine Beetle

Figure 66 Interior British Columbia pine forest affected by the mountain pine beetle In British Columbia , the infestation peaked in 2005 and has been decreasing each year as the amount of available mature pines decreases . In 2012 about million hectares of forest was designated as , which is where the needles of infected trees turn red as a result of the beetle killing the tree . This is down from 2011 when the amount of forest was million hectares . Projection ofthe Current Mountain Pine Beetle Infestation Cumulative percentage of pine killed observed 1999 to 2013 projected 2014 to 2020 ' Figure Cumulative percentage of pine and projected to die 2020 . If you are reading this in the print or version of this book , you can view this animation by going to the following Case Study Mountain Pine Beetle 120

Causes of the Infestation Scientists believe that warmer summers and milder winters play an important contributing role to the beetle infestation . Cold Canadian winters with temperatures below normally kill the beetle as well as pine beetle eggs and larvae . But milder winters and warmer summers have meant more beetles survive the winter . Until recently , it was believed that the mountain pine beetle could successfully attack only mature pine trees , but in recent years it has started to attack younger trees . Increased Fire Hazard It is believed that large areas of dead pine stands represent a potential fire hazard . The government is addressing this concern by directing fuel management activities in beetle areas as recommended in the 2003 Firestorm Provincial Review . Harvesting the affected stands of trees aids fire management by removing the presumed hazard and breaking the continuity of the fuels . These fuel management treatments are specifically designed to reduce interface fire threats to communities located in the infestation zone . The interface is the area where urban development and wilderness meet . Life Cycle and Pine Tree Infestation Beetles develop through four stages egg , larva , pupa and adult . Except for a few days during the summer when adults emerge from brood trees and fly to attack new host trees , all life stages are spent beneath the bark . In low elevation stands and in warm years , mountain pine beetles require one year to complete a generation . At high elevations , where summers are typically cooler , life cycles may vary from one to two years . It is the female beetle who initiates an attack . As they chew into the inner bark and phloem ( the living tissue that carries organic nutrients ) pheromones are released , attracting male and female beetles to the same tree . The attacking beetles produce more pheromones , resulting in a mass attack that overcomes the tree defences , resulting in attacks on adjacent trees . When the tree is first attacked , it remains green . Usually within a year of attack , the needles will have turned red . This means the tree is dying or dead , and the beetles have moved to another tree . In three to four years after the attack , very little foliage is left , so the trees appear grey . Natural predators of the mountain pine beetle include certain birds , particularly woodpeckers , and various insects . 121 Case Study Mountain Pine Beetle

Figure Pine tree infested by mountain pine beetle the pitch tube that the tree is creating to force the beetle out is clearly visible Infestation Detection and Monitoring through Remote Sensing Digital or film aerial photography is a popular method for monitoring and precisely mapping vast areas . Recently the digital era reached aerial photography and since 2010 almost all images acquired worldwide are done by direct digital cameras . Satellite imagery is another method of acquiring images from space . Both methods have advantages and disadvantages that relate to the nature of the acquisition and image quality . Remote sensing and aerial photography are used extensively to monitor diverse forest environments , map cities or countries and identify geological structures . Precise mapping is an example of a remote sensing process that has reached technical maturity and is used in practical applications worldwide . Image classification is generally accomplished by several procedures that involve human vision computer algorithms . Visual image segmentation is conducted by interpretation of targets from within an image on a computer monitor , while aerial photographic segmentation is performed a photograph prints ( and can be assisted with an overlapping image acquired at a different angle that enables vision . Statistical computerized image analysis is undertaken with algorithms that segment the image into several predetermined classes within a digital image . Forest areas are frequently surveyed by various remote sensing devices for both practical and experimental purposes . The application of classification methods for forest mapping and classification reaches relatively acceptable levels of classification accuracy ( 65 to 90 ) depending on data quality and implemented procedures . Mountain pine beetle infestation can be detected and monitored by remote sensing methods . This can be done visually on computer monitor or directly by flying above an infested area . The main characteristic of infested trees is the reddish colour on the tree crowns . Case Study Mountain Pine Beetle 122

Figure . Healthy pine trees ( green ) and trees infested by mountain pine beetle ( red ) the delineating used for computerized classification procedures Figure Measurement of the mountain pine beetle . Mountain Pine Beetle ( by US Forest Service ( Public Domain ) Figure Interior British Columbia lodgepole pine forest affected by mountain pine beetle . Pine beetle infested forest ( by Simon University ( under BY ( Figure Cumulative percentage of pine killed and projected to die 2020 from A History of the Battle Against the Mountain Pine Beetle . Ministry of Forestry ( Figure . Pine tree infested by mountain pine beetle the pitch tube that the tree is creating to force the beetle out are clearly visible Infested Tree ( File ) by ( under BY SA ( Figure . Healthy pine trees ( green ) and trees infested by mountain pine beetle ( red ) the delineating used for computerized classification procedures . Image from A . 2009 . Integrated and Multiangular High Spatial Resolution Image Classification . Dissertation . 123 Case Study Mountain Pine Beetle

Summary Forests are a vital part of the province history and sustainable forestry management is a essential part of a its future . The forest industry relies primarily on coniferous trees to for domestic and export markets . Harvest occurs both in natural stands and industrially planted stands . Within the province , reforestation is strictly regulated so that new forests mirror the diversity of natural forests and support the sustainable harvest of commercially valuable timber . The goal of these regulations is to ensure that forests contain genetic diversity , an important element in maintaining ecosystem resilience . British Columbia uses a mix of over 20 different native tree species in its reforestation programs . The current annual allowable cut ( is 75 million cubic metres . Both timber and values are considered in calculating . For example , the following factors are considered buffer zones losses Logging losses Operational constraints Environmental and wildlife considerations Technological advances in the logging industry have greatly affected the lumber production . Technology allowed mills to switch from to entities , and all aspects of milling are now automated for logs , saw milling , grading , and green chain ( an assembly line of fresh cut timber ) Technological advances include Transportation ( railways , rafts , trucks , bulldozers ) The donkey engine The mechanical spar pole The feller buncher Hydraulic barkers and new band saws Global demand in the century introduced a greater need for pulp and paper mills . Mills rose throughout the region of in places such as Prince Rupert , Duncan Bay , Port , and Victoria . owns approximately over 90 of the forested land , which means that determining and tax rates is important . Tenure is the way in which rights are held tenure is not a right itself . in the region include Tree farm licenses Public sustained yield units Forest licenses Summary 124

Key Terms Key Terms Annual allowable cut ( The amount of forest in allowed to be harvested . Currently the is 75 million cubic metres , including the temporary increases totalling about million cubic metres that are in place for salvaging timber attacked by mountain pine beetle in the Interior . Coniferous Refers to trees that are and evergreen . Coniferous trees make up the majority of broad tree species in British Columbia ( pine , spruce , fir , cedar and hemlock ) and are the most commonly harvested for the lumber and pulp industry . These trees tend to grow slowly between the deciduous trees . Eventually they grow to take the majority of the sunlight and cause the death of the previously predominant deciduous trees . Davis raft A raft used to prevent breakup of logs . which was later replaced by much better barge system ( loading and ) Deciduous A term used to describe trees and shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally ( commonly during autumn ) and to plants that lose their petals after or fruit when ripe . Donkey engine The nickname for a winch , or logging engine . widely used in past logging operations . though not limited to logging . Feller buncher A machine with metal tracks that cuts limbs and stacks logs all at once . Forest license The most common type of tenure in which the holder has right to harvest a stated volume per year . The forest license has same system of the but with renewable terms . Interface The area where urban development and wilderness meet . Mountain pine beetle A species of bark beetle native to the forests of western North America . It has a hard black exoskeleton , and measures approximately five millimetres , about the size of a grain of rice . Multinational corporations Organizations that own or control production or services facilities in one or more countries other than the home country . Public sustained yield units ( A tenure . The Ministry of Forests , Lands and Natural Resource Operations determines the volume of wood to be harvested by private companies using harvest contracts and licenses . A term used to describe the level of mountain pine beetle infestation where the needles of infected trees turn red as a result of the beetle killing the tree . Reforestation The natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands that have been depleted , usually through deforestation . Reforestation can be used to improve the quality of human life by soaking up pollution and dust from the air , rebuild natural habitats and ecosystems , mitigate global warming since forests facilitate of atmospheric carbon dioxide , and harvest for resources , particularly timber . 125 Key Terms

Key Terms 126 Suggested Activities A ' ti Activity I Walk around your neighbourhood and nearby parks . Take pictures of coniferous and deciduous trees that are native to the landscape . You can use a cell phone camera or a digital camera . Take pictures of the leaves , bark , flowers , fruits and either a profile or full stand of the tree including the tree crown . Identify the trees . Create an image presentation that describes the species you saw and what ecosystem you explored . Why were these plants located here ?

If you wish , contribute these photos to the and website , biodiversity Activity Build a model of a tree using Google Sketch Up , the tree in Google Earth where you may find the tree in British Columbia . 127 Suggested Activities References and Resources References Stats , 2014 . Annual Origin Exports . accessed ) British Columbia , Ministry of Forests , Parish , Columbia Partnership Agreement on Forest Resource Development II , 1994 . Tree book learning to recognize trees of British Columbia . British Columbia , Ministry of Forests , Mines and Lands . 2010 . The State of British Columbia Forests , ed . Forest Practices and Investment Branch , Victoria , sof 2010 report , 2013 . Mountain pine beetle poised to ravage Eastern Canada Technology Science News Document . URL news technology ( accessed ) Employment and Social Development Canada , 2013 . Labour Market Bulletin . publications bulletins ( accessed ) A . 2009 . Integrated and Multiangular High Spatial Resolution Image Classification . Dissertation . Government of British Columbia , 2013 . Facts About Mountain Pine Beetle . Government of British Columbia . mountain pine beetle ( accessed ) Government of Canada , 2013 . The Daily Manufacturing at a glance The Canadian lumber industry , 2003 to 2012 Document . URL 131112 ( accessed ) Government of Canada , 2014 . Mountain pine beetle Natural Resources Canada Document . URL ( accessed ) Mountain pine beetle , Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia . accessed ) 2011 . Geography of British Columbia people and landscapes in transition , ed . ed . Press , Vancouver . References and Resources 128