British Columbia in a Global Context Chapter 5 Food Systems in British Columbia

. FOOD SYSTEMS IN BRITISH COLUMBIA Learning Objectives . Critically refine a definition of a food system . Explain the spatial and historical development of food systems in the context of British Columbia . Critically explain controversial issues surrounding the contemporary food system . Produce maps that display information about food system dynamics in the context of British Columbia . Explain sustainable agricultural strategies that respond to global , regional and local challenges . Analytically deploy concepts like ( but not limited to ) food miles , food deserts , commodity chains , food security , food sovereignty , food justice , agricultural derivatives , genetically modified organisms , organic agriculture and sustainable agriculture . Food Systems in British Columbia 80

Introduction What is a food system ?

What type of food systems promote food security ?

What is the geography of food security ?

What food products are produced in British Columbia ?

Where do food products from British Columbia go and why ?

Why was Atlantic salmon British Columbia main agricultural export for 2013 ?

The study of the geography of food systems attempts to answer these and many more questions . This chapter focuses on the concept of food systems . A food system encompasses cultural in addition to the production , processing , packaging , distribution , marketing , exchange , consumption and disposal or treatment of food and items . Food systems encapsulate some of the most basic ways in which humans interact with their environment , including a range of historical agricultural practices . A food systems approach thus allows us to reveal the relations that practices around food . The British Columbia ( food system encompasses diverse cultural from its immigrant populations , some of the most prolific salmon runs in the world , a growing seafood sector , a large animal husbandry sector and a diverse agribusiness food ( industry that is highly integrated into the global marketplace . The contemporary food system plays a critical role in both regional food security and globalized food regimes characteristic of century agribusiness . 81 Introduction

Food Systems in the Physical Landscape British Columbia food systems reflect regional biophysical factors , human behaviour and the relations in which food practices have evolved and currently exist . The main biophysical constraints to human food procurement in include landscape features ( slope and elevation ) soil fertility , climate , and water availability ( both groundwater and precipitation ) Geologically speaking , British Columbia is a newcomer to North America , and most of the province has experienced dramatic geologic changes over the last 200 million years . The region as we know it today was created through tectonic movement ( deposition , earthquakes and volcanic eruptions ) and , geomorphic processes ( episodic glaciation , weathering , erosion and sediment transfer ) As a result , has a pointy landscape with several mountain ranges and relatively few areas of high soil fertility suitable for conventional agricultural practices . mus VAN ( Census Regions femur Region MAI MUN ( Region NORTH ( emu Regina ( PEACE RIVER Figure Agricultural regions of British Columbia The highest soil fertility is primarily located in sinuous river valleys and deltas much like the River Valley . In fact , of the province land base , the Canadian Land Inventory estimates that only is suitable for agriculture , 27 is capable of growing a reasonable range of crops and is prime agricultural land ( Smith , 2012 ) While the geography of soil fertility is severely constrained in and largely determinative of the major agricultural Food Systems in the Physical Landscape 82

regions , agricultural capability of the land is measured by the Canadian Land which includes soil fertility as just one of many considerations in ranking lands on a scale as shown in Table . Class is prime agricultural land that has no significant limitations and is suitable for most crops while Class is land unsuitable to agriculture . The scale is modified by 16 that provide information on the kind of management problem or use limits that might exist for agricultural land for example , erosion ( excess water ( salinity ( and stoniness ( see Table ) Table Land Capability Class for Mineral Soils Class ass land is capable of producing the very widest range of crops . Soil and climate conditions are optimum , resulting in easy management . Class ass land is capable of producing a wide range of crops . Minor restrictions of soil or climate may reduce capability but pose no major difficulties in management . Class ass land is capable of producing a fairly wide range of crops under good management practices . Soil and or climate limitations are somewhat restrictive . Class ass land is capable of a restricted range of crops . Soil and climate conditions require special management considerations . Class ass land is capable of production of cultivated perennial forage crops and specially adapted crops . Soil or climate conditions severely limit capability . Class ass land is important in its natural state as grazing land . These lands can not be cultivated due to soil and or climate limitations . Class ass land has no capability for soil bound agriculture . Table Land Capability for Mineral Soils A Soil moisture deficiency Soil moisture deficiency Salinity Adverse climate ( excluding precipitation ) stoniness Undesirable soil structure Shallow soil over bedrock and or bedrock Erosion Topography Excess water Fertility ( groundwater ) Inundation ( flooding by streams , etc . Permafrost Degree of permeability Depth of organic soil over bedrock rockiness . Canadian Land Inventory 83 Food Systems in the Physical Landscape

ree Days The interaction of landscape with climate also leads to major constraints to the expansion of agriculture in The number of days and growing degree days determines what kind of crops can be expected to successfully grow in different geographic regions . days decline as elevation and latitude increase as shown in Figure . i COLUMBIA FREE no mo ' arf Scale knell ! me a mo 200 . Figure British Columbia days Water Accessibility Water accessibility is also a factor in the success of agriculture . In many areas of the province , such as the arid valley , precipitation and groundwater resources are combined with irrigation technology to increase the water availability of crops . As much of the agricultural lands occur in river deltas and , there is also sometimes a need to pump excess water out of fertile soils . Food Systems in the Physical Landscape 84

Figure The town of , British Columbia , sits at the southern end of the valley , ooo , Figure Annual precipitation in British Columbia Figure Agricultural Regions of British Columbia from 2011 Census of Agriculture , Ministry of Agriculture , stats Census 85 Food Systems in the Physical Landscape

Figure British Columbia days . Map of days by Hilda is an adaptation from the British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture ( maps ) and Natural Resources Canada ( site english maps reference ) licensed under ( licenses by ) Figure The town of , British Columbia is in the Public Domain wiki File Figure Annual precipitation in British Columbia adapted from Impacts to Adaptation Canada in a Changing Climate , Figure ( environment resources publications reports assessments 2008 10253 ) by the Government of Canada Natural Resources and used under the terms of license located at 10847 . Food Systems in the Physical Landscape 86

Food Systems in British Columbia Indigenous The first human food systems in British Columbia were primarily based on hunting , gathering and cultivating root crops ( Turner Turner , 2008 ) The ancestors of First Nations peoples often practised periodic migration to take advantage of seasonal resources , including the abundant salmon runs and a number of native seasonal fruits . Figure map shows the geographic layout of villages , tribal locations before European contact Indigenous food systems also included the cultivation and gathering of root crops such as clover , Pacific silverweed , northern rice root , and lupine ( Turner , 1995 ) 87 Food Systems in British Columbia

Fig Indigenous food systems also included the cultivation and of root crops such as ( top left ) clover ( top right ) pacific silverweed ( bottom left ) northern rice root ( bottom right ) This food system relied on populations moving to find food sources around coastal areas or interior locations usually within a constrained geographic region . Introduction Agricultural Practices and The settlement of European communities in led to the displacement of indigenous food systems through the destruction of indigenous food resources ( tubers and native ) constraints to the movement of indigenous peoples , and the introduction of new crops and agricultural methods ( Turner Turner , 2008 ) The expansion of European agriculture was largely a function of the settlement following the gold rush in the century . As the gold rush expanded through the Interior , entrepreneurs saw an opportunity to begin cattle ranching in locations like , which were ideally placed in grasslands relatively close to gold mining communities . Land developers soon followed in the Interior , creating small parcels of land in communities with names like Summerland and parcels that would be advertised as a British Garden of Eden to new settlers and potential investors from Europe . In addition , many other immigrant communities often took up agricultural production in their first generation . For example , near Grand Forks and communities throughout the Lower Mainland represent historical immigrant enclaves that continue to practise agriculture as their primary source of income . Much of the growth of agriculture was oriented toward internal markets until the expanded use of canning and the requirements for food exports during the two world wars . Contemporary agriculture in plays several roles it is a major economic sector that employs over people ( in agriculture , fishing , manufacturing and food services ) it has a multiplier effect on regional economies , it provides ecosystem services and it defines cultural landscapes in several areas where regional identity has become tied to agricultural livelihood . Food Systems in British Columbia 88

The increases in , agricultural production has increased pressures on natural resources such as fresh water , fertile soils and wild animal populations . The Contemporary Food System The globally integrated industry includes primary production in agriculture , aquaculture and commercial fisheries , and processing of food and beverages . Over 200 primary agriculture products and over 100 species of fish , shellfish and marine plants are produced in . The food and beverage processing industry is the largest manufacturing industry in the province with almost and firms . The 2011 Canadian Agricultural Census shows that the provinces farms ( of all farms in Canada ) produced billion ( of all Canadian gross farm receipts ) on hectares ( of the Canadian agricultural lands ) In 2012 , the industry had sales of billion with primary production agriculture at billion , aquaculture and commercial fisheries at billion and food and beverage manufacturers at billion . In 2013 , the entire industry and producers exported over billion of products to more than 140 markets . The top exports were farmed Atlantic salmon at 267 million and food preparations for manufacturing at 190 million . Over billion ( 68 ) of all exports in 2013 went to the United States , though the most rapid export growth from 2012 to 2013 was oriented across the Pacific to the Philippines ( 21 million , increasing by 42 ) China ( 234 million , increasing by 38 ) and Japan ( 174 million , increasing by 13 ) In 2013 , led Canada in sales of agricultural products like blueberries , sweet cherries , raspberries , pears , apricots , brussel sprouts and rhubarb . In addition , it was the highest producer for 17 other agricultural commodities . 89 Food Systems in British Columbia

TOP . EXPORTS IN 2013 BY VALUE MILLIONS ) South Korea , China , Australia , aux us . Julian . Baked Goods , Japan crab 5723 90 clam , us , Hon law , china , Russia ' sec sum an Us a 70 , Japan , Netherlands , Fodder ar 745 , Japan , India , china in ' us , 5643 , nail . Ukraine , as rappers 5549 . 25 us 14 Live Cam . us . 15 swam am , 40 . 411 475 am , China , 16 Prawns 462 227 Japan , China , Nan Kong . 11 534 ! 42 . South Kora ) china 40 . 5414 some us an 542 ! 21 Poultry Products 5331 395 use , 22 Herring 33 . China , 23 average 35 . 24 Products , Egypt , Greece , South as may 155 309 china , us , UK . Australia All Other mess TOTAL sum use 51 us , a , um , um , ram source Canada , ION Figure Top exports in 2013 Food Systems in British Columbia 90

Top . Experts in 2013 by Value ( Millions ) mas Value ( Millions ) um I am Prod Figure Top six exports in 2013 Growth in Viticulture Among the major growth industries within the food system is a rapidly expanding wine industry . Between 2006 and 2011 , Statistics Canada estimates that the number of grape growers increased 42 from 686 to 965 , and that hectares were dedicated to grape growing . Another 2011 survey supported by the Wine Institute and Grape Growers estimated that there were 210 licensed wineries , 705 grape growers and 864 vineyards that covered hectares . According to this second study , the wine growing land was distributed in the Valley ( coastal areas ( and other areas ( Food Distribution and Cost Despite increasing production in staple foods and growth in the commodities like wine , many families have increasing difficulty managing a budget that allows them to access foods that meet the requirements of a healthy diet . In 2011 , the average monthly cost for the nutritious food basket ( for a family of four ) in was estimated by the of Canada to be . 91 food banks assisted individuals in . Of this amount were children and youth and were women . As well , of households receiving food had income from current or recent employment , of food bank users identified as Aboriginal , and lived in housing . Food distribution in is linked to the large supermarket chain stores ( Foods , Real Canadian Superstore ) that sell primarily imported food , though local retail chains like Askew ( in Salmon Arm ) farm gate sales , and farmers markets are firmly established as alternative distribution mechanisms throughout the province . Figure . Indigenous Map , Perrier , Rhodes , Smith , Sto lo Heritage Trust 2001 , A Sto ?

historical atlas , Douglas , 91 Food Systems in British Columbia , Page is licensed under ( licenses ) Figure Indigenous food systems is comprised of the following images clover Clover hiding a yellow flower ( photos 12567713 1351673683 ) by Tom Brandt ( photos 12567713 ) is licensed under BY ( licenses ) Pacific Silverweed . PACIFIC ( photos 14061345418 in ) by Toni ( is licensed under ( licenses ) Northern rice root Black Lily at Trail Bay , photos 3053916172 Alan ( is licensed under BY 20 ( lupine ( photos 14601516 3758658488 Raleigh ( photos 14601516 ) is licensed under BY ( licenses ) Figure Top Exports in 2013 derived from 2013 Export Highlights ( stats Export ) Figure Top six exports in 2013 by Hilda derived from 2013 Export Highlights ( stats Export ) Food Systems in British Columbia 92

Confronting the Frontiers The contemporary food system has pushed the edge of agriculture in many ways . The expansion of agriculture in tandem with rapid population growth and urbanization has led to many conflicts . The case study on the Agricultural Land Reserve details policy responses to these conflicts . In addition , recent concern over the geographic expansion of genetically engineered agricultural products ( or genetically modified organisms ) such as alfalfa and the Arctic apple have led to protests for labelling foods and for applying the Precautionary Principle ( a principle that should be applied to the use of genetically modified ( food crops concerning human health ) to further adoption in order to limit impacts on organic farms . The increased attention to food system issues in has led to a number of political and social trends aimed at changing our understanding of food systems The which originated in the Lower Mainland , challenges to eat locally ( within 100 miles of their home ) There is increasing attention on providing better access to seed sources and a variety of seeds through local seed companies . The number of organic producers has increased over the last 20 years . food organizations such as the Food Systems Network ( and more local food policy councils challenge municipal governments to adopt strategies and plans to support local food security often through support for urban agriculture . The movement toward urban agriculture has led to some innovative work in social justice by organizations such as Sole Foods and small entrepreneurs engaged in alternative production methods such as ( Groups such the Young seek alternative ways for young people to access farmland in those regions where access is difficult because of the high cost of entry ( due to both limited amounts of land and speculative dynamics of land markets ) 100 Mile Diet wiki The Diet . Food Systems Network . Sole Foods website . Young website 93 Confronting the Frontiers

Case Study The Agricultural Land Reserve ( ALR ) The Agricultural Land Reserve ( ALR ) is a provincial zone that recognizes agriculture as the priority use for approximately of the land base of British Columbia ( 2013 ) Established under the provincial Land Commission Act of 1973 , the ALR is one of the earliest examples in North America using regional zoning laws to permanently preserve farmland and promote local food production . The ALR is administered by the Agricultural Land Commission ( an independent administrative tribunal that currently consists of no less than seven appointed members including a chair and members representing six regional panels . The purpose of the is to preserve agricultural land to encourage farming on agricultural land in collaboration with other communities of interest and to encourage local governments , First Nations , the government and its agents to enable and accommodate farm use of agricultural land and uses compatible with agriculture in their plans , bylaws and policies . The reviews all applications for exclusion , inclusion , subdivision and use applications under the Agricultural Land Commission Act of 2002 and ALR regulations . ALR regulations outright permit many farming activities such as raising livestock , creating greenhouses and producing poultry , dairy , horticultural plants , vegetables , grains and tree fruits . ALR regulations allow local governments to restrict but not prohibit other uses such as farm retail sales , storing , packing and processing , timber production , equestrian facilities and compost production . ALR regulations also outline permitted uses that can be prohibited by local governments such as accommodation , temporary saw mills , pet kennels and breeding facilities , education and research , and road construction with . Geography of the ALR When first delineated , the ALR was estimated to include hectares . As of April 2013 , the ALR includes approximately hectares consisting of both private and Crown ( federal and provincial ) lands . The ALR is distributed over six administrative regions North ( hectares , 49 ) Interior ( hectares , 33 ) hectares , hectares , South Coast ( hectares , Island ( hectares , 2013 ) Agriculture Land Commission Case Study The Agricultural Land Reserve ( ALR ) 94

, COLUMBIA AGRICULTURAL LAND ( ALR ) um Figure British Columbia Agricultural Land . Reserve Establishing the ALR Urban sprawl poses many challenges to agricultural land preservation and local food production , particularly in environments that have limited land suitable for agriculture . In , only of the land base is considered suitable for agriculture and capable of growing a reasonable range of crops ( lands ranked as Class through by the Canadian Land Inventory ) Smith , 2012 ) Prime agricultural lands ( of provincial land base ) are often located in narrow valleys near densely populated urban areas and subject to heavy competition with other development uses . It is estimated that in the early , up to hectares of farmland was annually lost to urban sprawl ( Smith , 2012 ) Increasing public awareness of the threat of urban sprawl to scarce farmland led directly to the creation of the ALR . In 1973 , Minister of Resources Robert Williams championed a plan to pursue regional land use zoning as economically less costly than the purchase of development rights or agricultural lands outright ( Petter , 1985 ) By 1976 , delineation was completed by the commission and 28 regional districts . ALR boundary delineation focused on including agricultural lands ranked as Classes to . In 1978 , an audit found that approximately 53 of the lands in the ALR fell into these classes Class ( Class ( Class ( 15 ) Class ( Class ( Class ( Class ( Water ( The fact that there was more water ( hectares ) than Class land ( hectares ) indicates the scarcity of prime agricultural lands in . Marginal lands were included in the ALR for several technical reasons . Some marginal lands were active agricultural lands ( and land used for the production of cranberries or blueberries ) and 95 Case Study The Agricultural Land Reserve ( ALR )

other marginal lands could not be spatially without impacting higher class lands . The Canadian Land Inventory provided a rough estimate of field conditions ( original map scales were at ) and aligning existing legal boundaries for private properties with the distribution of lands was not feasible given the timeframe , mandate and resources . In 1983 , the creation of the Land Capability Classification System for Agriculture in British Columbia ( which uses a similar classification scheme to the ) allowed the to have more detailed estimates of agricultural potential of lands , though the continues to be used in areas not covered by this more detailed analysis . Despite the emphasis on Class to lands in the creation of the ALR , these rankings are only one aspect of defining agricultural lands . When judging proposed changes to the ALR , the examines the agricultural potential of the parcel and surrounding lands by looking at agriculture capability ratings in addition to factors related to productivity , yield and suitability . Governance of the ALR Since 1973 , several legislative changes have impacted the administration of the ALR , though the central mission to permanently preserve agricultural lands has remained intact . In 1977 , the was relieved of the responsibility for land banks , and in order to focus attention on agricultural land preservation . In addition , public hearings were required for exclusion applications from regional districts and municipalities , and appeals to decisions were to be made to Cabinet . In 1988 , regulatory changes resulted in golf courses being classified as a permitted use of agricultural land , which resulted in 181 applications ( 120 of which moved forward ) In the , changes included A moratorium on golf course development Changes to the decision appeal processes ( requiring that Cabinet refer appeals to a board or commissioner ) Implementation of a vague provincial interest clause that allowed Cabinet significant interpretative leeway and became a serious controversy in the 1999 Six Mile Ranch judgment The merging of the with the Forest Land Commission In 2002 , the Agricultural Land Commission Act ( removed forestry land management duties from the and reorganized the commission into a committee with a chair and six regional panels of three people each . In the strategic plan for 2003 , the introduced the idea that exclusion of land from the ALR could be approved based on community need and net benefit to agriculture . citizens and organizations like the Suzuki Foundation highlighted these new terms as a concern and challenged them as contravening the ( Campbell , 2006 ) Future of the ALR In 2010 , the Auditor General and Chair Richard Bullock released complimentary reports that analyzed the and ALR . These reports noted that despite funding challenges and legislative changes , the ALR had been largely successful in preserving agricultural lands . As well , they noted that the required transformation and increased funding in order to meet its mandate and to continue to effectively administer the ALR . In 2011 , the provincial government made a increase to the annual budget and committed to million in additional funding until 2015 . In addition , the began to undertake a ALR boundary review that would ensure The ALR has defensible and accurate boundaries Updating of the technology required to undertake its duties , including accurate GIS , electronic records Case Study The Agricultural Land Reserve ( ALR ) I 96

that are publicly accessible and an online application portal A proactive planning organization that works with local communities and places priority considerations on bona fide farmers and ranchers to identify and address emerging issues , and to develop capacity to respond to and enforces against improper use of ALR The success of this new emphasis to adequately resource and to move the into a proactive tribunal engaged with planning will determine the future of the ALR and the ability of to maintain its agricultural lands for future generations . Figure British Columbia Agricultural Land Reserve by Hilda . Map data from 97 Case Study The Agricultural Land Reserve ( ALR )

Case Study Managing the Salmon Fishery A fishery is a marine environment concerned with breeding and or or harvesting populations of fish and other forms of marine life , such as bivalve molluscs ( mussels , clams ) Fishery often refers to the area , the type of fish , the method and tools of fishing ( including the vessels if any , used in fishing ) and the people responsible for stewardship , harvesting and other forms of managing the fishery . fisheries are a key natural resource to both the physical and material wealth of the province , yet they are complex environmental systems . While fish are a renewable resource , they are difficult to manage . Estimating populations , as we shall see below , is increasingly difficult due to their mobility , the changing nature of global and localized environmental processes and considerations for other human activity in the region . Ten thousand years before European settlers arrived in , Aboriginal people were sustained by the abundant marine life available along the Pacific Coast and up through the many lakes and rivers . For example , the harvest was , and remains , an important first spring harvest of fish , coming before the spring salmon runs . rich in , was sought after not only as a food but also for the oil that was rendered from it . oil was transported along grease trails , or trade routes that extended south and east beyond the borders of what is day , and into southern California , and . These same trade routes supported other trade and migration in the area . When European settlers and fur traders travelled west , they did so using Aboriginal guides taking them along the established trade infrastructures that were made for transporting the bounty of Pacific coast fisheries . The same fisheries that sustained people in the region for the past years were also seen as an abundant renewable natural resource by European settlers . With colonization came commercial fishing in a form similar to what we know today . Commercial fishing is the harvesting of wild fish for sale on in the marketplace . It stands in relation to aquaculture , which is the farming of marine life under controlled conditions . In today , there are both commercial fishing and aquaculture industries . Over 80 ocean and freshwater species of fish are traded from . This includes several types of salmon , with five species dominating trade coho , sockeye , pink , chum and chinook . As of 2012 , salmon has a declining overall share of the overall seafood harvest . Table 53 Wild Pacific salmon overview from Agriculture Canada Scientific Name Common Name Market Name Chinook salmon Chinook , spring , king Chum salmon keta , dark dog summer keta Coho salmon Coho , silver Sockeye salmon Sockeye , reds , red salmon Pink salmon Pink , humpbacks Salmon fisheries in , much like other resources , have been subject to technological change and to cycles related to the global marketplace and food safety . Most salmon are caught in the ocean , which is under federal management . Salmon are anadromous ( they live in the ocean and breed in fresh water ) and while the Fisheries Act mandates that the federal government is responsible for both fresh and saltwater salmon habitat , freshwater marine areas are also under provincial management during a key point in the life cycle of the salmon , during their early life and when they return to fresh water to spawn after four years . Case Study Managing the Salmon Fishery 98

Technology has changed the way salmon are fished and prepared , from drying , salting and smoking in the early century and before , to canning , which gained popularity during the gold rush because of its compact and protected format . In the subsequent 1898 gold rush , authorities required all miners going into the north have pounds of provisions . By the early , was producing 837 , 489 cans of salmon a year . This was made possible by the introduction of the Smith Butchery Machine in 1903 . A good butcher could remove fins , head , tail and innards from about fish per day . But the machine could clean fish in nine hours , or about 40 fish per minute , drastically increasing production capacity . Changes in marine vessels , refrigeration and the use of radar and sonar all contributed to increased fishing in and globally . Challenges Management Salmon return to the same rivers in which they were born to spawn , so each river has its own salmon run . The River sockeye run is one of the largest in . Managing the salmon can be difficult due to mixed demands by industry , First Nations , sport fishers and the need to maintain a sustainable population . Overfishing during the fish wars between the United States and Canada has affected the salmon populations , as have competing land use claims . Look at the chart in Figure , which shows a drastic drop from recorded salmon runs , which had numbered in the range of 25 to 41 million in the early to less than million in the years around 1917 . Why do you think that is ?

River Sockeye Salmon Run ( millions ) Year Figure River sockeye salmon The answer does lie in the mismanagement of fisheries , as you might suspect . Instead , the culprit is the Hells Gate slide . In 1912 and 1913 , the Canadian National Railway was being built along the steep narrow bank of the River at Hell Gate . Railroad construction necessitated blasting into the rock , which fell into the River in the canyon below , which contributed to an already steep and difficult passage for the salmon . In 1913 , a rock slide occurred in the same place in the season just before the salmon returned to their spawning grounds . As you can see in Figure , salmon levels remained staggeringly low until 2010 . Despite the significant jump in 2010 , the River run is still recovering from the the 1913 slide , over 100 years ago . 99 Case Study Managing the Salmon Fishery

More contemporary threats to the salmon fishery include oceans , climate change , fish farming and . Oceans house natural predators of salmon , such as seals and sea lions . Mackerel is moving north as waters warm , competing for food sources with the salmon . In the oceans salmon also face in international waters , which is exhibited by the many disputes over salmon harvesting rights . Climate change affects salmon due to warming waters , which are not favoured by salmon , who tend to thrive in colder temperatures . Salmon Farms Salmon farms have seen exponential growth since the . Salmon farming entails raising salmon in net pens , which are stationary in bays or inlets , rather than existing in the open ocean . Fish farming contrasts with , which use and maintain freshwater hatching beds to artificially increase salmon production . In 1984 there were only 10 salmon farms in , and five years on , there were 135 farms run by 50 companies . In 2004 there were 129 farms in operation by 11 companies . The spike in farms lead to overproduction , driving the world price of salmon down and increasing environmental and biological risk . From 1994 to 2002 , put a moratorium on new fish farms , which helps to explain the drop in their number from 1989 to 2004 . Disease transfer is the largest concern of fish farms . Some salmon , such as coho , can not be farmed because they experience high stress levels due to containment and therefore do not reach maturity . Higher levels of disease among farmed salmon pose a risk to wild salmon populations if the farmed salmon escape and mix with wild salmon populations . Salmon farms use nets to hold Atlantic salmon populations of to million fish close to the rivers where pink and chum salmon are at their smallest and most vulnerable , and therefore most susceptible to disease transfer . The major solution to the risks of salmon farming is to produce the fish on land in tanks this , however is a significantly more expensive option . One of the major biological risks to the salmon population come from sea lice , which are increased by salmon farming . Larvae hatching from sea lice on wild adult salmon migrating into rivers infect the farm salmon in the fall . The close quarters of the fish in the net pens allows the sea lice to spread . Researchers in Norway have found a young salmon or sea trout can bear approximately one louse for every gram of the fish weight . Research suggests that at to grams pink and chum fry are much too small to survive even a single louse . There are two species of sea lice commonly found on farmed and wild salmon in Gravid , which are only known to live on salmon and appear to damage juvenile salmon . The Gravid can live on many fish species and appears not to damage fish . Sea lice exist in large numbers near fish farms and are virtually absent elsewhere in the ocean . Summary As we have seen from this case study , there are many threats to a key resource in our food system . Additionally , it is a complex system to manage between economic and environmental sustainability pressures . Some of the challenges , as in the case of the Hells Gate slide , happened over a century ago , and we are still dealing with the consequences . The Pacific salmon was added to the list of official symbols in February 2013 ( as the fish emblem ) in recognition of its huge impact on the environment , culture and the economy . What sort of solutions do you see to help manage the salmon fishery ?

Case Study Managing the Salmon Fishery 100 Figure River Sockeye salmon by Hilda derived from Pacific Salmon Commission ( 101 Case Study Managing the Salmon Fishery Summary A food system encompasses cultural in addition to the production , processing , packaging , distribution , marketing , exchange , consumption and disposal or treatment of food and items . This chapter focused on the food systems and the way in which humans interact with their environment , including a range of historical agricultural practices . To understand the origin of food systems in British Columbia it is important to review the geographical landscape of the province , which includes a number of mountain ranges with relatively few areas of high soil fertility suitable for conventional agricultural practices . The highest soil fertility is primarily located in river valleys and deltas . Of the provinces land base , the Canadian Land Inventory estimates that only is suitable for agriculture . Climate affects the expansion of agriculture . The number of days and growing degree days determines what kind of crops can be expected to successfully grow in different geographic regions . As elevation and latitude increases , the number of days decline . Water accessibility is also a factor in determining the success of agriculture . Although considered a high precipitation geographical zone , there are arid regions within the valley that make water availability for crops difficult . Today food system encompasses agriculture , aquaculture and commercial fisheries , and processing of food and beverages . Ironically , in 2013 main export was farmed Atlantic salmon at 267 million . The contemporary food system , within , has direct linkages to issues despite increasing production in staple foods and growth in commodities like wine . Many families have increasing difficulty managing a budget that allows them to access foods that meet the requirements of healthy diets . contemporary food system has also been affected by the rapid growth of urbanization . The case study on the Agricultural Land Reserve detailed policy reactions to conflicts . Attention to food system issues in has led to a number of political and social trends aimed at changing understanding of our food systems . These include the diet , better access to seed sources , growth of organic producers , the establishment of the Food Systems Network ( and Sole Foods and Young , and the introduction of . Managing food systems is also a complex process that entails coordination between competing local economies , environmental processes and global markets , which we have seen in the case study of the salmon fishery . Summary 102

Key Terms Key Terms diet A diet that challenges to eat locally ( within 100 miles of their home ) Agricultural Land Reserve ( ALR ) A provincial land use zone that recognizes agriculture as the priority use for approximately of the land base of British Columbia ( 2013 ) Established via the provincial Land Commission Act of the ALR is one of the earliest examples in North America of the use of regional zoning laws to permanently preserve farmland and promote local food production . Any agriculturally based operation or activity that brings visitors to a farm or ranch . Food Systems Network ( Formed in 1999 and incorporated in 2004 , a member network that includes farmers , health practitioners . educators and consumers across the province to link and facilitate food security activities between over 20 food security organizations and food policy councils . Biophysical In relation to the environment , the biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism or population , including the factors that have an in their survival , development and evolution . Food system Cultural the production , processing , packaging . distribution , marketing , exchange , consumption and disposal or treatment of food and items . Land capability classification system for agriculture in British Columbia Guidelines used by and others for assessing agricultural capability of land at a detailed or level of investigation . Sinuous river valleys The winding patterns of rivers . Six Mile Ranch A ranch west of the site of a development controversy . In a developer sought permission for a residential and resort development involving 136 hectares of agricultural land at the Six Mile Ranch . The Commission rejected the complex proposal , which included compensatory benefits for agriculture , because of the high quality of the land slated for removal . However , it stated it would consider a smaller proposal that provided improved benefits to agriculture . For more information on the controversy see page 15 of . Sole Food An organization that transforms vacant urban land into street farms that grow artisan quality fruits and vegetables , available at farmers markets , local restaurants and retail outlets . The concept of taking a small lot ( backyard , front lawn ) to new levels of productivity and profitability that go far beyond traditional home gardening practices . key characteristics include being production based , smaller than one acre , low capital intensive , driven , environmentally friendly and close to markets . Suzuki Foundation A environmental organization that collaborates with Canadians from all walks of life , including government and business , to conserve the environment and work toward sustainability . Tubers Various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged to store nutrients . They are used by plants 103 Key Terms

Key Terms 104 Suggested Activities Su i tics Activity I Volunteer for a local group that is doing a food system activity ( anything related to the food system for example , political protests , food banks , farming , agricultural research , or food policy councils ) Write a critical reflection describing the educational value of your experience and stating how the activity impacts and originates from food system dynamics . Activity Act as a participant observer at a food policy council meeting . Activity Map your farmers markets . Create an online map ( using Google Maps Engine , or another provider ) and add a point to the map where your local farmers markets occur . Include dates and times for the market . Activity Create a map of gleaning locations . You can add your locations to an online site like Falling Fruit ( Activity Review content from popular media relevant to local regional food systems . The content can be from a article ( from websites , newspapers or magazines ) film documentary , lecture , website or audiovisual presentation . Describe and synthesize the media and explain why this is interesting in relation to course themes . 105 Suggested Activities

Activity Present one of the indigenous plants used in your local region . Tell the class why this is an important plant for a local or regional culture , how it is used , the geographic distribution and any other interesting details from your own research . For example , how does it fit into the contemporary food system ?

Are there any samples of the plant in locally available products ?

Activity Add a Wikipedia article on strategies . Consider interviewing the founders of the organization for the content of your article . Activity Create a presentation or report about on one of the following topics One or more regional cuisines A regional dish that is found as a regional cuisine elsewhere Ethnic cuisine , describing what it is and where pockets of different may be located A critical analysis of grocery stores offerings . What is on the shelves and why ?

Who are they targeting ?

Where is the store located ?

Activity Explore the of urban agriculture on university campuses by completing a case study on the rooftop garden at the University of British Columbia Case Study Urban Agriculture , Suggested Activities 106 References and Resources References Agricultural Land Commission Document , URL ( accessed ) 2013 . British Columbia agricultural land reserve Economic , legal and political issues . Land Use Policy 30 ( last accessed December 2013 ) Bullock , Review of the Agricultural Land Commission . Moving Forward A Strategic Vision of the Agricultural Land Commission for Future Generations . British Columbia . Canada , and . and . and . and . of , 2002 . Wild Pacific Salmon Overview Document . URL . accessed ) Campbell , 2006 . Forever the Agricultural Land Reserve for the Century . last accessed December 2013 ) 2002 . Unscrambling the omelette Understanding British Columbia agricultural land reserve . Studies The British Columbian Quarterly . 1694 ( last accessed December 2013 ) Hanna , 1997 . Regulation and conservation A case study of the British Columbia Agricultural Land Reserve . Journal of soil and water conservation 52 ( content 52 ( last accessed December 2013 ) Reid . 2008 . Poll of Public Opinions Toward Agriculture , Food and Production in . Report for Investment Agriculture Foundation of . Vancouver . Jones , 2010 ) Sparks fly over theory that volcano caused salmon boom . Nature Published online 29 October 2010 . Provincial Agricultural Land Commission ) 2013 . Provincial Agricultural Land Commission Annual Report 2013 . British Columbia . Petter , A . 1985 . Sausage making in British Columbia government the creation of the Land Commission Act , August 1973 . Studies The British Columbian Quarterly . last accessed December 2013 ) 1994 ) Local fisheries a review of international experiences and their implications for salmon management in British journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 51 ( 10 ) 2006 . Agricultural Land Reserve Historical Roots . In Post World Planners Congress Seminar Planning for Food June 21 , 2006 Vancouver , Vancouver Provincial Agricultural Land Commission . Smith , 2012 . A Work in Progress The British Columbia Farmland Preservation Program . British Columbia . 1974 . The British Columbia Land Commission . 2295 . 107 References and Resources

, 1996 ) Status of anadromous salmon and trout in British Columbia and Yul , 21 ( 10 ) Turner , 1995 . Food Plants of Coastal First Peoples . Press . Turner , Turner , 2008 ) Where our women used to get the food cumulative effects and loss of ethnobotanical knowledge and practice case study from coastal British Columbia . Botany , 86 ( References and Resources 108